UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


46TH  CONGRESS,  )  SENATE.  i  Ex.  Doc. 

rion.       )  \    No.  51. 


2d  Session. 


REPORT 


ox 


EOBEIGN  SYSTEMS 


OF 


NAVAL  EDUCATION, 


BY 


PROFESSOR   JAMES   RUSSELL    SOLEY,  U.  S. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE, 
1880. 


•     •  «  .      .         «*     • •  . 
'  «1 '     *  *      »,'*»*• 


V500 


LETTEE 


FROM 


THE    SECRETARY   OF    THE   NAVY, 


TRANSMITTING, 


In  compliance  witli  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  January  19,  the  report  of  Prof. 
James  E.  Soley  on  the  foreign  systems  of  educating  naval  officers. 


- 

D    JANUARY  21,  1880. — Referred  to  the  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs  and  ordered  to  be 

printed. 


NAVY  DEPARTMENT, 
*t>  Washington,  January  20,  1880. 

SIR:  In  compliance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Senate,  of  the  19th 
H  instant,  I  have  the  honor  to  communicate  to  the  Senate  herewith  "  the 
s,  report  of  Prof.  James  E.  Soley  on  the  foreign  systems  of  education  of 
s  naval  officers." 

I  am,  sir,  very  respectfully, 

E.  W.  THOMPSON, 
^)  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

Hon.  WILLIAM  A.  WHEELER, 
N.  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 


:36()29 


LETTER    OF    TRANSMITTAL. 


UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY, 

Annapolis,  Md.,  November  20,  1879. 

SIR  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  foreign  sys- 
tems of  naval  education,  prepared  in  compliance  with  the  order  of  the 
Navy  Department  of  March  11,  1878,  while  on  duty  at  the  Paris  Expo- 
sition. In  addition  to  the  material  obtained  at  the  Exposition,  which 
was  not  large,  I  have  utilized  such  official  documents  and  papers  as 
came  into  my  possession  from  other  sources.  I  also  made  a  personal 
inspection  of  the  naval  schools  and  colleges  of  England  and  France,  and 
of  the  German  practice-ship  for  cadets. 

In  my  visits  to  foreign  establishments,  I  was  received  by  the  official 
authorities  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  attention,  and  given  every 
facility  in  pursuing  investigations.  I  have  to  express  my  obligations  to 
the  ministers  of  the  United  States  in  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
Italy,  for  obtaining  the  necessary  authorizations  and  documents  to 
enable  me  to  study  the  systems  of  naval  education  in  those  countries. 
I  have  also  to  acknowledge  particularly  the  assistance  given  me  by 
Admiral  Sir  C.  F.  A.  Shadwell,  K.  C.  B.,  President  of  the  Eoyal  Naval 
College,  and  Dr.  Hirst,  Director  of  Studies,  at  Greenwich;  Captain 
Fairfax,  Commander  Lord  Eamsay,  and  Mr.  Aldous,  of  the  Britannia ; 
Captain  Herbert  and  Commander  Acland,  of  the  Excellent ;  Vice-Admi- 
ral Bourgois,  Prefet  Maritime  of  Brest,  and  Captain  Guepratte,  com- 
manding the  Borda ;  M.  A.  Lebeau,  Chef  du  bureau  des  Equipages  de  la 
Flotte,  at  the  ministry  of  marine,  in  Paris ;  Lieutenant  Collet,  of  the 
Polytechnic  School ;  and  Captain  Zirzow,  commanding  the  German  prac- 
tice-ship Mobe. 

I  have  also  to  report  that  the  documents,  programmes  of  study,  lec- 
tures, and  other  works  relating  to  naval  and  military  education,  wrhich 
I  collected  at  Paris  and  elsewhere,  to  the  number  of  about  three  hun- 
dred volumes,  have  been  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  RUSSELL  SOLEY, 
Professor,  United  States  Navy. 

Hon.  E.  W.  THOMPSON, 

Secretary  oftJie  Navy,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CONTENTS. 

PART  I. — GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Page. 

CHAPTER  I. — General  steps  in  the  career  of  line  officers 11 

II. — Executive  officers  assigned  to  special  duties 13 

III. — Organization  and  education  of  the  staff  and  civil  corps 18 

1.  Engineer  service 18 

2.  Constructors 20 

3.  Chaplains  and  naval  instructors 21 

4.  Medical  service 22 

5.  Marine  Artillery  and  Light  Infantry 23 

6.  Paymasters,  secretaries,  and  clerks 24 

IV.— Former  systems  of  education 26 

V. — Naval  cadets  and  the  Britannia  course 29 

1.  Examination  for  admission 29 

2.  Course  of  study 31 

3.  Examinations 34 

4.  Discipline 36 

5.  Fees  and  accounts 37 

6.  Mode  of  life,  health,  amusements 37 

VI. — Service  at  sea  as  midshipmen 43 

VII.—  The  Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich 49 

1.  Gunnery  and  torpedo  lieutenants  and  half-pay  officers 59 

2.  Probationary  lieutenants  of  the  Royal  Marine  Artillery 65 

3.  Acting  sub-lieutenants 65 

4.  Engineers  and  construction  students 71 

VIII. — The  gunnery  ship  Excellent 78 

1.  Long  course 80 

2.  Short  course 84 

3.  Acting  sub-lieutenants'  examination 84 

4.  Gunnery  lieutenants'  examination ^ 86 

IX. — Torpedo  instruction 87 

X. — General  character  of  the  English  system 89 

PART  II. — FRANCE. 

XI. — Organization  of  the  personnel 93 

I.  Line  officers 93 

II.  Engineer  mechanicians 94 

III.  Miscellaneous  staff  corps 94 

1.  Engineer  corps 94 

2.  Engineer  hydrographers 95 

3.  Medical  corps 95 

4.  Examiners  and  professors  of  hydrography 96 

5.  Professors  at  the  Naval  School 96 

6.  Pay  corps 96 

7.  Commissariat  clerks 97 

8.  Civil  engineers  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works 97 

9.  Inspectors  of  administrative  service 97 

10.  Accounting  officers  and  storekeepers 97 

11.  Victualing  clerks 97 

12.  Keepers  of  ships'  stores 97 

13.  Overseers  of  public  works 97 

14.  Overseers  of  subsistence 97 


8  CONTENTS. 

Page. 

III.  15.  Overseers  of  hydraulic  works 97 

16.  Chaplains 97 

17.  Hospital  attendants 97 

IV. — Marine  and  colonial  troops... 97 

V. — Warrant  officers,  petty  officers,  and  seamen 98 

XII.— Schools 101 

XIII.— The  Polytechnic  School 103 

XIV— The  Naval  School '. »--• 109 

1.  Personnel 109 

2.  Examination  for  admission 112 

3.  Academic  year 125 

4.  Course  of  instruction 126 

5.  Discipline,  mode  of  life,  routine  ..: 133 

6.  Fees  and  accounts , 138 

7.  Practice  cruise 139 

XV.— The  Engineers'  School 140 

XVI.— The  Torpedo  School 145 

XVII. —The  School  of  Machinists 147 

XVIII. — The  schools  for  commissary  pupils 150 

XIX. — General  character  of  the  French  system 152 

PART  III. — GERMANY. 

XX. — Personnel  of  the  German  Navy 157 

XXL— Admission 161 

XXII. — Cadets'  practice  cruise 165 

XXIII. — The  Naval  Academy  and  School :  general  organization 168 

XXIV. — Naval  School :  cadets'  division.     Midshipmen's  examination 173 

XXV. — Midshipmen's  practice  cruise 176 

XXVI. — First  officers'  examination.     Election  at  Kiel 184 

XXVII. — Naval  School:  officers' division.     Officers' professional  examination..  186 

XXVIII.— The  Naval  Academy 190 

XXIX. — School  of  Engineering  and  Pilotage;  paymaster  applicants'  class 194 

PART  IV. — ITALY. 

XXX.— The  Naval  School '. 205 

XXXL— The  Gunnery  School .' 216 

XXXII.— The  Torpedo  School 221 

XXXIII. — School  for  Engineer  Mechanicians 222- 

APPENDIX. 

NOTE  A. — Allowances  to  officers  performing  special  duties 227 

B. — Course  of  studies,  Her  Majesty's  ship  Britannia  228 

C. — Punishments,  Her  Majesty's  ship  Britannia 230 

D. — Routine  of  diet,  Her  Majesty's  ship  Britannia 231 

E. — Examination  papers,  Her  Majesty's  ship  Britannia 231 

F. — Naval  instructors,  midshipmen,  and  cadets  in  sea-going  ships 248 

G. — Examination  papers,  Royal  Naval  College 249 

H. — Private  students  at  Greenwich 305 

I. — Examination  papers,  gunnery  ship  Excellent - 305 

J. — Examination  papers  for  admission,  French  Naval  School 315 

K. — Course  in  English  nautical  language  at  the  French  Naval  School 322 

L. — Course  of  instruction  in  steam-engineering,  French  Naval  School 322 

M.— Bill  of  fare,  Borda 328 

N. — Course  of  instruction,  French  Machinists'  School 328 

O. — Daily  routine  on  board  the  Niobe,  cadets'  practice  ship 334 


z. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 


CHAPTER    I. 

GENERAL  STEPS  IN  THE  CAREER  OF  LINE  OFFICERS. 

The  regular  grades  of  executive  or  liue  officers  in  the  Koyal  Navy  are 
as  follows : 

Admiral  of  the  fleet. 

Admiral. 

Vice- Admiral. 

Rear-Admiral. 

Captain. 

Commander. 

Lieutenant. 

Sub-lieutenant. 

Midshipman. 

Naval  cadet. 

The  career  of  an  officer  in  the  Navy  begins  with  his  nomination  as  a 
naval  cadet.  These  nominations  appear  to  be  made  at  the  will  of  the 
Admiralty,  as  far  as  the  selected  persons  are  concerned,  and  they  num- 
ber about  40  for  each  class  or  half-year.  After  passing  the  physical  and 
mental  examinations  at  Greenwich,  the  candidates  receive  appointments 
as  naval  cadets,  and  they  join  the  Britannia,  the  training  ship,  at  Dart- 
mouth, in  January  or  July  following  their  examinations,  as  the  case 
may  be.  After  two  years  of  study  on  board  the  Britannia  they  go  to 
sea,  not  in  any  particular  ship,  but  in  any  of  the  cruising  ships  to  which 
they  may  be  appointed.  After  one  year's  sea-service  they  are  rated  as 
midshipmen,  though  the  degree  of  proficiency  shown  in  the  Britannia 
may  reduce  this  time ;  in  fact,  in  certain  cases,  extinguish  it  altogether : 
in  which  last  case  they  are  rated  midshipmen  as  soon  as  they  graduate. 
These  cases,  however,  are  rare.  In  all  cases  except  the  last,  cadets  are 
required  to  pass  an  examination  for  the  rating  of  midshipman. 

After  five  years'  service  in  the  Navy,  including  the  time  allowed  on 
leaving  the  Britannia,  and  after  having  attained  the  age  of  nineteen,  a 
midshipman  comes  up  for  promotion.  Before  promotion,  he  must,  how 
ever,  pass  three  examinations.  The  first  is  in  seamanship,  and  is  con- 
ducted on  the  spot,  at  sea,  wherever  the  midshipman  may  be ;  and,  on 
passing,  he  receives  from  the  senior  officer  present  an  order  as  acting 
sub-lieutenant.  As  soon  as  he  returns  to  England,  he  goes  to  the  Royal 
Naval  College  at  Greenwich  for  six  months,  at  the  end  of  which  he  is 
examined  in  navigation  and  in  general  subjects.  After  a  brief  interval, 
he  goes  to  the  Excellent  for  a  course  of  65  days,*  followed  by  an  exani- 

*  Course  of  instruction  in  gunnery  ships,  1875,  p.  14. 

11 


12  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

ination  in  gunnery.  This  is  the  last  compulsory  examination  in  his 
career  as  a  naval  officer.* 

Having  passed  these  three  examinations,  he  becomes  a  sub-lieuten- 
ant, that  is,  one  of  a  body  of  naval  officers  who  are  qualified  and  ready 
for  promotion  to  be  lieutenants,  but  are  simply  awaiting  vacancies.  In 
this  promotion  (from  sub-lieutenant  to  lieutenant)  seniority  seems  to  gov- 
ern largely,  though  there  are  a  few  cases  where  upper  men  remain  in  a 
lower  grade,  while  their  juniors  are  promoted  5  and  a  few  junior  sub- 
lieutenants are  promoted,  while  their  seniors  remain  sub-lieutenants  5 
but  the  mass  of  promotions  consists  of  men  at  the  head  of  the  list. 

The  promotions  from  lieutenant  to  commander  and  from  commander 
to  captain  are  by  selection,  some  of  them  in  accordance  with  special 
rules  fixed  by  the  Admiralty,  as  in  the  case  of  some  gunnery  lieuten- 
ants ;  but  in  the  case  of  both  promotions,  they  involve  most  extensive 
changes  in  the  seniority  of  the  officers  concerned.  For  example,  of  the 
commanders  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  since  January  1,  1874,  the 
one  who  now  (January,  1879)  stands  seventh  on  that  list  was  in  1873  JSo. 
103  on  the  list  of  commanders ;  and  of  the  102  commanders  who  were 
then  his  seniors,  only  6  are  still  above  him ;  40  are  captains  junior  to 
him  in  rank,  and  33  have  not  yet  been  promoted,  the  remaining  23 
having  disappeared  from  the  active  list.  The  changes  in  the  seniority 
of  officers  in  the  promotions  from  lieutenant  to  commander  are  equally 
marked. 

From  the  grade  of  captain  upward,  promotions  are  strictly  by  senior- 
ity, though,  as  the  Admiralty  instructions  say,  u  reserving  Her  Majes- 
ty's undoubted  right  of  selection."  Since  January,  1874,  however,  there 
has  been  no  case  in  which  the  seniority  of  officers  in  these  grades  has 
been  permanently  altered,  except  that  of  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh. 

*  In  Eleet  Circular  No.  41,  C,  dated  May  27,  1879,  the  Admiralty  has  announced  its 
intention  of  instituting  a  course  and  examination  for  all  officers  in  pilotage,  subse- 
quent to  the  gunnery  examination.  The  course  will  last  two  months,  and  will  be 
given  on  board  the 'Duke  of  Wellington,  flag-ship,  at  Portsmouth.  The  examination 
will  be  held  at  the  Hydrographic  Office,  Whitehall.  As  this  provision  only  takeg  effect 
011  officers  entering  the  service  subsequent  to  the  year  1875,  the  course  will  not  go  into 
operation  before  1883. 


CHAPTER    II. 

EXECUTIVE  OFFICERS  ASSIGNED  TO  SPECIAL  DUTIES. 

Besides  the  ordinary  duties  incident  to  the  career  of  an  executive 
officer*  in  the  Navy,  officers  who  are  specially  qualified,  or  who  have 
special  tastes  for  one  branch  of  their  profession,  are  given  an  opportu- 
nity and  arc  even  encouraged  to  devote  themselves  specially  to  it.  At 
present  there  are  four  of  these  branches,  and  the  number  seems  likely 
to  increase.  They  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Navigating  officer. 

2.  Gunnery  lieutenant. 

3.  Torpedo  lieutenant. 

4.  Interpreter. 

^fficers  choosing  one  of  these  branches  have  to  go  through  a  special 
course,  or  at  least  to  pass  a  special  examination.  They  are  not  exempted 
from  their  ordinary  duties  as  executive  officers,  but  they  re.main  in  the 
line  of  promotion,  and  they  are  given  certain  emoluments  and  privileges, 
mainly  in  the  shape  of  extra  pay  t  and  special  service ;  in  some  cases, 
also,  of  more  rapid  promotion.  A  distinguishing  mark  is  affixed  to  their 
names  in  the  Navy  List,  and,  in  general,  their  extra  effort  receives  full 
and  substantial  recognition. 

The  question  of  encouraging  specialties  in  naval  education  and  ad- 
ministration is  one  which  has  been  much  discussed,  and  about  which 
opinions  differ ;  but  the  full  trial  which  the  system  has  received  in  En- 
gland, and  its  marked  success,  make  it  worthy  of  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration. In  a  profession  as  varied  and  as  many-sided  as  that  of  a 
naval  officer,  there  is  room  for  the  indulgence  of  every  taste,  and  use  for 
every  form  of  talent.  Of  course,  the  first  object  is  to  produce  officers 
who  can  manage  ships  and  fight  ships.  Seamanship,  navigation,  gun- 
nery, and  steam-engineering,  in  their  broadest  sense,  form,  if  not  the 
foundation,  at  least  the  essential  superstructure,  of  naval  education. 
Every  officer  must  receive  a  certain  training  in  these  branches  to  fit  him 
for  his  ordinary  duties  and  enable  him  to  meet  extraordinary  emergen- 
cies. But  there  are  other  duties  incident  to  the  naval  profession,  and 
useful  alike  in  peace  and  in  war,  which  call  for  a  high  order  of  special 
talent  and  a  high  degree  of  special  acquisition.  For  some  one  or  other 
of  these  duties  or  branches,  all  officers  have  sufficient  time,  while  tastes 
and  aptitudes  vary  ;  and  it  is  to  employ  this  spare  time,  and  to  utilize 
these  particular  aptitudes,  that  an  opportunity  is  given  in  the  English 
service  to  cultivate  specialties.  It  has  not  been  found  that  this  system 

*  The  term  "executive  officer,"  as  used  in  the  English  Navy,  and  as  generally  used 
in  this  report,  refers  to  officers  of  the  executive  branch,  or  "line  officers,"  as  they  are 
called  in  our  own  Navy. 

tThe  table  given  in  the  Appendix,  Note  A,  shows  the  rate  of  extra  pay  in  each  case. 

13 


14  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

injures  the  general  efficiency  of  individuals  who  take  advantage  of  itr 
while  it  adds  incalculably  to  the  strength  and  usefulness  of  the  serv- 
ice as  a  whole.  It  gives  the  Admiralty  men  of  high  scientific  training 
for  every  kind  of  work  which  needs  such  training ;  while  the  presence 
in  the  service  of  officers  so  trained  tends  to  leaven  the  whole  body  and 
to  raise  the  standard  of  professional  knowledge. 

It  is  upon  this  principle  that  the  general  system  of  education  in  the 
English  Navy  is  largely  based.  The  course  of  study  and  practice  is 
uniform  for  all  officers  up  to  the  final  examination  of  sub-lieutenants- 
After  that,  every  facility  is  given  for  the  development  of  individual  in- 
clinations. Not  only  the  four  special  branches  mentioned  above,  in 
following  which  officers  to  some  extent  separate  themselves  from  the 
line,  but  the  great  variety  of  voluntary  elective  courses  for  higher  officers, 
at  the  College  and  on  board  of  the  Excellent,  afford  abundant  oppor- 
tunities. And  the  government,  knowing  well  that  special  opportunities 
without  special  rewards  form  an  imperfect  incentive  to  most  men's  am- 
bition, has  held  out  many  forms  of  direct,  material  compensation,  in  the 
shape  of  extra  pay,  prizes,  medals,  more  rapid  advancement,  attractive 
lines  of  duty,  and,  by  no  means  least,  distinguishing  marks  on  the  Navy 
List. 

1. — NAVIGATING  OFFICERS. 

Until  recently  the  duties  of  navigation  and  pilotage  were  performed 
by  a  separate  corps  of  officers,  called  navigating  officers.  Of  these  there 
still  remain  a  large  number  in  the  several  grades  of  staff-captain,  staff- 
commander,  navigating  lieutenant,  and  navigating  sub-lieutenant.  Two 
of  the  old  grades,  navigating  midshipman  and  navigating  cadet,  have 
ceased  to  exist,  and  the  others  will  gradually  pass  away. 

Formerly  the  duties  of  this  corps  were  performed  by  officers  called 
masters,  of  whom  there  were  several  grades.  In  1863,  and  again  in 
1867,  the  corps  of  masters  was  reorganized,  and  its  older  members  be- 
came the  newly-established  staff-captains  and  staff-commanders.  Higher 
relative  rank  was  given  to  the  navigating  officers,  and  their  position 
was  in  every  way  improved  5  the  cadets  of  the  corps  being  educated 
with  naval  cadets  in  the  Britannia,  and  passing  subsequently  through 
a  special  course  of  training.* 

In  1872  the  Admiralty  decided  to  abolish  gradually  the  separate  corps 
of  navigating  officers,  after  its  short-lived  career,  and  to  intrust  their 
duties  to  line  officers,  as  in  the  American  service ;  except  that  certain 
officers  are  selected,  who  are  to  devote  themselves  during  a  certain 
period  to  this  branch  of  the  profession.  Accordingly,  the  appointment 
of  navigating  cadets  ceased,  the  last  having  been  made  in  January,  1872. 
The  new  regulations  which,  somewhat  modified,  are  now  in  force,  pro- 
vide that  lieutenants  under  four  years'  standing,  and  sub-lieutenantsr 

*Navy  List,  January,  1871,  p.  375.     Ciro.  No.  :3,  C,  January  6,  1870,  §  30. 


EXECUTIVE    OFFICERS    ASSIGNED    TO    SPECIAL    DUTIES.          1 5 

may,  on  their  own  application,  be  appointed  to  navigating  and  pilotage 
duties.  They  pass  the  regular  sub-lieutenants'  examination  at  Green- 
wich, and  a  special  examination  at  the  Hydrographic  Office  on  pilotage 
in  general,  and  the  navigation  of  the  English  Channel  in  particular. 
Before  entering  on  their  duties,  they  must  have  had  one  year's  sea- 
service  as  watch  officers.  Within  five  years  from  their  appointment  to 
navigating  duties  they  must  pass  through  a  short  course  in  gunnery  in  the 
Excellent.  They  are  called  on  to  perform  navigating  duties  while  in 
the  grades  of  lieutenant  and  commander.  But,  contrary  to  the  practice 
in  the  case  of  the  old  navigating  corps,  they  may  also  be  required  to 
act  as  watch  and  divisional  officers,  and  they  are  eligible  for  promotion 
to  the  highest  rank  in  the  service,  their  seniority  not  being  affected  by 
their  choice  of  navigating  duties.  An  arrangement  is  also  made  by 
which  the  present  navigating  sub-lieutenants  can  be  transferred,  if  they 
prefer,  to  the  executive  branch  ;  and  the  Admiralty  is  also  authorized  to 
transfer  to  the  executive  branch  a  small  number  of  navigating  officers 
of  the  grades  of  staft'-commander  and  navigating  lieutenant,  who  have 
distinguished  themselves  by  some  special  service.! 

It  has  very  recently  (May  27, 1879)  been  decided  to  establish  a  course 
of  instruction  for  navigating  officers  on  board  the  flag-ship  at  Ports- 
mouth. This  course  lasts  two  months,  and  is  preliminary  to  the  pilot- 
age examination  at  Whitehall. 

2. — GUNNERY  AND  TORPEDO  OFFICERS. 

Lieutenants  who  desire  to  devote  themselves  to  these  branches  of  the 
service  receive  permission  to  qualify,  on  their  own  application,  when 
recommended  by  the  captain  under  whom  they  are  serving.  Candidates 
who  have  not  previously  served  one  year  at  sea  as  lieutenants  are  ap- 
pointed to  a  sea-going  ship,  to  complete  that  period  as  watch  officers. 
The  special  school  for  gunnery  officers  is  the  Excellent,  and  for  torpedo 
officers,  the  Vernon,  both  stationed  at  Portsmouth.! 

The  total  period  of  instruction  for  gunnery  lieutenants,  including  a 
vacation  of  a  month  in  July  and  September,  is  about  twenty  months, 
distributed  as  follows : 

Theoretical  course  at  Greenwich,  9  months;  vacation,  1  month;  tor- 
pedo instruction  at  Portsmouth,  2  months  ;  practical  gunnery  course  in 
Excellent,  6  months;  attendance  at  Eoyal  gun  factories,  carriage  de- 
partment, and  laboratory,  at  Woolwich,  3  weeks  ;  review  and  examina- 
tion, 3  weeks ;  leave,  1  week ;  total,  19  months,  3  weeks. 

If  it  is  found  during  .any  part  of  the  course  that  a  lieutenant  is  not 
likely  to  prove  efficient  as  a  gunnery  officer,  his  name  is  submitted  to 
the  Admiralty,  with  a  view  to  his  removal  from  the  books  of  the  Ex- 
cellent. 

"Regulations  of  1879,  §  239. 

t  Course  of  instruction  in  gunnery  ships,  p.  17. 


16  NAVAL    EDUCATION— GREAT   BRITAIN. 

At  the  final  examination  in  each  course  (theoretical  and  practical),  two 
certificates  are  given,  as  follows: 

THEORETICAL   COURSE. 

First  class. — About  60  per  cent,  of  the  maximum. 
Second  class. — About  30  per  cent. 

PRACTICAL   COURSE. 

First  class. — About  80  per  cent. 
Second  class. — About  60  per  cent. 

FINAL  CERTIFICATES. 

First  class. — First  class  in  both  theoretical  and  practical  courses. 
Second  class. — First  class  in  either  course  and  second  in  the  other. 
Third  class. — Second  class  iu  both  courses. 

The  duties  of  gunnery  officers  are  largely  instructional,  and  they  may 
perform  watch  and  divisional  duty  with  the  other  lieutenants  of  the  ship 
in  which  they  are  serving.  They  receive  extra  pay  according  to  the 
certificate  given  them  at  their  passing  examination.  They  are  picked 
and  selected  men ;  and  they  may  be  said  to  be  to  the  Navy  what  the  en- 
gineers are  to  the  Army — the  scientific  corps  of  the  service. 

3. — INTERPRETERS. 

The  examination  for  interpreters  is  held  at  the  Royal  Naval  College, 
and  is  open  to  all  officers  below  the  rank  of  commander,  on  their  own 
application. 

The  application  states  the  language  or  languages  chosen  by  the  can- 
didate, the  choice  being  open  between  French,  Spanish,  German,  Portu- 
guese, Italian,  and  such  others  as  may  be  designated  by  the  Admiralty. 
The  examination  is  oral  and  written,  and  of  a  searching  character. 
The  branches  of  the  examination  and  the  marks  given  for  each  are  as 
follows : 

a.  Oral : 

1.  Pronunciation  and  accent 50 

2.  Facility  of  understanding  the  language 75 

3.  Accuracy  of  expression 100 

4.  Fluency 75 

5.  Extempore  translation : 

(a)  From  the  language  into  English 75 

(&)  From  English  into  the  language 100 

6.  Written: 

6.  Writing  from  dictation 75 

7.  Idiom: 

(a)  General 75 

(6)  Maritime 100 

8.  Composition 100 

9.  Grammar 125 

10.  Translation  : 

(a)  From  the  language  into  English 100 

(fe)  From  English  into  the  language 150 

Total..  -  1,200 


EXECUTIVE    OFFICERS    ASSIGNED    TO   SPECIAL    DUTY.  17 

Candidates  are  not  qualified  unless  they  obtain  50  per  cent,  in  each 
subject,  and  58£  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate ;  75  per  cent,  gives  a  first 
class,  58£  per  cent.,  a  second-class  certificate.  Eejected  candidates  are 
re-examined  six  months  later,  but  the  second  examination  is  always 
final.  The  names  of  officers  who  pass  successfully  are  noted  for  em- 
ployment as  interpreters,  in  flag  or  senior  officers'  ships,  each  of  which, 
on  foreign  stations,  is  allowed  one  officer  who  has  qualified  in  the  lan- 
guages spoken  within  the  limits  of  the  command.  Officers  so  employed 
act  as  interpreters  in  addition  to  their  regular  duties,  and  receive  extra 
pay  according  to  their  certificate. 
S.  Ex.  51 2 


CHAPTEE    III. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  EDUCATION  OF  THE  STAFF  AND  CIVIL  CORPS. 
1. — ENGINEER  SERVICE. 

The  grades  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers  are  : 

Chief  inspector  of  machinery, 

Inspector  of  machinery, 

Chief  engineer, 

Engineer, 

Assistant  engineer. 

To  these  may  be  added  the  grade  of  engineer  student,  which  corre- 
sponds in  some  measure  to  that  of  naval  cadet. 

Vacancies  for  appointment  as  engineer  student  are  open  to  public 
competition.  The  candidates  must  not  be  more  than  16  nor  less  than  14 
years  of  age,  and  must  be  the  children  of  British  subjects.  They  must 
also  satisfy  the  Admiralty  with  regard  to  "  respectability,  good  char- 
acter, and  physical  fitness,"  the  last  being  tested  by  a  medical  examina- 
tion. The  mental  examination  is  held  in  May  of  each  year  by  the  Civil 
Service  Commissioners.  To  avoid  the  expense  incurred  by  candidates 
in  traveling  to  any  one  place,  simultaneous  examinations  are  held  in 
London,  Liverpool,  Portsmouth,  Devonport,  Bristol,  Leeds,  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Dublin,  Belfast,  and  Cork. 
This  provision  is  specially  important  in  an  examination  which  is  open  to 
unlimited  competition,  where  a  candidate  can  form  no  possible  estimate  of 
his  chance  of  success ;  and  its  absence  Avould  undoubtedly,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  examination  for  cadet  engineers  in  the  United  States  Navy,  pre- 
vent many  excellent  candidates  from  presenting  themselves. 

The  subjects  for  examination,  and  the  corresponding  marks,  are  as 
follows : 

Arithmetic 300 

Dictation 100 

Composition 100 

Grammar 150 

Translation  from  French 100 

French  grammar >. .  50 

Geography 100 

Algebra  (including  quadratics) 300 

Geometry  (Euclid,  first  six  books) 300 


Total 1,500 

Candidates  who  fail  to  pass  in  the  first  three  subjects,  or  in  reading 
aloud,  are  disqualified,  and  their  other  papers  are  not  examined.  Those 
who  show  a  competent  knowledge  of  all  the  subjects,  and  who  obtain  an 
aggregate  of  not  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  maximum,  are  classed  in 
one  general  list  in  order  of  merit,  and  are  eligible  for  appointment  as 


THE    STAFF    AND    CIVIL    CORPS.  19 

engineer  students  in  one  of  the  dockyards,  according  to  the  number  of 
appointments  which  it  is  decided  to  make  in  that  year.  The  successful 
candidates  are  entered  as  engineer  students  before  July  1  of  each  year, 
and  are  required  to  join  with  their  parents  in  a  bond  for  £300  to  enter, 
if  required,  into  the  naval  service,  as  assistant  engineers,  at  the  end  of 
their  period  of  training.  Parents  of  engineer  students  are  required  to 
pay  £25  a  year  for  each  student  during  the  first  three  years  of  his  train- 
ing, payable  each  year  in  advance.  In  case  of  failure  of  payment,  the 
student  is  discharged.  Board  and  lodging  are,  however,  provided  by 
the  government,  and  students  are  required  to  reside  in  the  dockyard. 

The  course  in  the  dockyards  covers  six  years,  and  is  mainly  devoted 
to  practical  training  in  the  workshops  and  to  instruction  in  iron  ship- 
building. The  students  also  attend  the  dockyard  schools,  where  they 
have  an  extensive  course  in  mathematics,  aud  spend  a  portion  of  their 
time  in  the  drawing  office.  Means  are  afforded  them  of  acquiring  the 
groundwork  of  the  knowledge  required  by  a  naval  engineer  in  regard  to 
the  working  of  marine  engines  and  boilers,  including  those  repairs  that 
can  be  carried  out  afloat ;  the  practical  use  of  the  instruments  used  in 
the  engine-room,  including  the  indicator ;  aud,  in  general,  they  become 
acquainted  with  the  duties  of  a  naval  engineer.  While  undergoing  this 
course  the  students  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  captain  of  the  Steam 
Eeserve  and  a  staff  of  officers ;  and  instruction  in  ship-building  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  chief  constructor  of  the  dockyard. 

Engineer  students  are  examined  yearly  under  the  direction  of  the  Pres- 
ident of  the  Naval  College.  They  are  also  examined  at  the  end  of  their 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years  of  service,  by  the  engineer  officers  of  the 
Admiralty,  as  to  their  practical  knowledge  of  steam  machinery.  Two 
prizes  are  given  annually  in  each  dockyard  to  the  students  who  show 
the  greatest  skill  as  workmen.  Practical  engineering  is  an  essential 
subject  of  examinations,  aud  students  have  to  get  50  per  cent,  of  the 
maximum  in  this  branch  in  order  to  pass ;  students  who  fail  to  get  a 
passing  mark  are  allowed  another  year,  and  a  re-examination ;  but  those 
who  fail  a  second  time  are  dropped.  Those  who  pass  successfully  at  the 
end  of  the  six-year  course  in  the  dockyards  are  admitted  to  the  Naval 
College  at  Greenwich,  for  a  theoretical  course  of  one  term,  as  acting 
assistant  engineers.  On  the  completion  of  this  course,  they  are  com- 
missioned as  assistant  engineers,  aud  are  sent  to  sea. 

Two  assistant  engineers  are  chosen  annually  from  those  who  complete 
the  course  at  Greenwich,  to  remain  for  two  terms  longer,  taking  a  far 
higher  course  of  scientific  instruction.  After  graduation,  they  serve  for 
one  year  at  sea,  and  then  become  eligible  for  positions  as  constructing 
engineers  at  the  Admiralty  and  in  the  dockyards.  By  this  ingenious 
but  very  simple  device  the  great  body  of  engineer  officers  get  a  sufficient 
training,  while  the  government  has  at  its  disposal  in  the  same  corps  a 
few  men  of  the  highest'  scientific  attainments,  to  fill  those  positions  in 
the  service  where  such  attainments  are  needed. 


20  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

No  assistant  engineer  who  lias  passed  three  terms  at  Greenwich  is 
allowed  to  leave  the  service  within  seven  years  of  the  completion  of  his 
course,  except  upon  payment  of  £500  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  education. 

Test  examinations  are  held  for  promotion  to  the  grades  of  engineer 
and  chief  engineer, 

2. — CONSTRUCTORS. 

Though  there  is  no  organized  corps  of  constructors  in  the  English 
Navy,  with  a  line  of  promotion  and  relative  rank,  like  the  engineers, 
yet  the  civil  officers  employed  at  the  Admiralty  and  in  the  dock-yards 
to  superintend  the  work  of  construction  resemble  in  some  respects  such 
a  corps,  and  perhaps  will  sometime  be  organized  in  such  a  way.  At  the 
head  is  the  Director  of  Naval  Construction,  one  of  the  most  important 
officers  in  this  department  of  the  government ;  with  him  is  associated 
at  the  Admiralty  a  staff  of  chief  constructors,  assistant  constructors, 
examiners  of  dockyard  and  contract  work,  engineer  inspectors,  and 
draughtsmen.  Each  dockyard  has  also  its  chief  constructor  and  its 
constructors.  These  officers,  who  have  hitherto  been  drawn  mainly  from, 
graduates  of  the  School  of  Naval  Architecture,  will  now  be  supplied  by 
a  small  body  of  students,  who,  beginning  their  career  as  dockyard  ap- 
prentices, are  admitted,  to  the  number  of  three  a  year,  to  a  three-years' 
course  at  Greenwich ;  this  course  and  the  long  course  for  assistant 
engineers  are  the  highest  pursued  at  the  college,  and  they  are  of  the 
very  first  importance  to  the  naval  service.  To  show  the  simple  and 
admirable  method  by  which  these  students  are  obtained,  it  will  be  nec- 
essary to  go  with  some  detail  into  the  appointment  and  training  of  dock- 
yard apprentices. 

As  in  the  case  of  engineer  students,  vacancies  for  appointments  as 
apprentices  at  any  of  the  five  dockyards  are  open  to  public  competition. 
Applications  must  be  sent  by  May  of  each  year  to  the  superintendents 
of  the  dockyards,  by  whom  lists  of  candidates  are  kept.  Candidates 
must  not  be  under  14  nor  over  15  years  of  age ;  must  give  proof  of  age, 
character,  &c. ;  and  their  physical  fitness  must  be  determined  by  a  board 
of  medical  officers.  Examinations  are  held  simultaneously  in  June  of 
each  year,  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners,  at  London  and  at  the 
dockyards.  The  subjects  and  marks  for  the  examination  are  as  follows: 

Arithmetic 350 

Orthography 100 

Handwriting 100 

Grammar 100 

English  composition 100 

Geography 100 

Euclid  (first  three  books) - 150 

Algebra,  including  quadratics 150 


Total , 1150 

Candidates  have  a  preliminary  examination  in  the  first  four  subjects, 
and,  if  they  fail  in  any  one  of  them,  they  are  at  once  rejected.    Those 


THE    STAFF    AND    CIVIL    CORPS.  21 

who  pass  the  preliminary  test  then  undergo  a  competitive  examination, 
and,  if  they  show  a  competent  knowledge  of  all  the  subjects,  they  become 
eligible  for  appointment  as  apprentices  in  the  various  trades,  according 
to  their  position  on  the  examination  lists,  at  the  various  dockyards. 
They  are  bound  by  indenture  to  serve  in  this  capacity  for  seven  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  they  receive  a  certificate  of  their  character  and  con- 
duct, and  the  progress  they  have  made  in  their  trade  and  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  prescribed  subjects. 

Three  from  among  those  who  have  passed  five  years  at  the  dockyards 
are  selected  annually  by  competitive  examination  for  study  at  the  Naval 
College  at  Greenwich.  They  are  entered  as  students  in  naval  archi- 
tecture, and  they  remain  at  college  three  terms,  passing  the  vacation 
(July  1  to  September  30)  at  one  of  the  dockyards.  The  course  at  Green- 
wich is  similar  to  the  long  course  for  selected  engineers,  and  is  of  a  very 
high  professional  and  scientific  character. 

On  passing  the  examination  at  the  end  of  the  course,  the  construction 
students  may  be  sent  to  sea  for  a  year,*  after  which  they  are  appointed 
to  some  post  for  which  they  are  fitted,  at  first,  perhaps,  as  assistants  to 
the  foremen  at  the  dockyards,  and  later  to  positions  as  constructors  or 
draughtsmen,  at  the  yards  or  the  Admiralty. 

On  their  entry  into  the  college,  they  are  required  to  give  a  bond  for 
£250  to  serve  under  the  Admiralty  for  seven  years  after  completing 
their  apprenticeship. 

Both  dockyard  apprentices  and  engineer  students  have  instruction  in 
the  dockyard  schools,  comprising  algebra,  descriptive  geometry,  analyti- 
cal geometry,  calculus,  and  mechanics. 

Half-yearly  examinations  are  held,  the  papers  for  which  are  sent  down 
by  Dr.  Hirst,  the  Director  of  Studies  at  Greenwich,  and  the  examina- 
tions are  supervised  by  the  dockyard  chaplains.  The  dockyard  schools 
are  also  personally  inspected  from  time  to  time  by  Dr.  Hirst. 

3. — CHAPLAINS  AND  NAVAL  INSTRUCTORS. 

There  are,  properly  speaking,  no  grades  in  either  of  these  corps  ;  nor 
is  there  any  specific  examination  for  an  appointment  as  chaplain.  Naval 
instructors,  however,  are  subjected  to  strict  examinations  before  ap- 
pointment ;  and  chaplains  frequently — in  fact,  in  the  majority  of  cases — 
qualify  for  this  examination,  and  hold  the  two  positions  jointly,  and  per- 
form the  duties  of  both,  throughout  their  whole  career.  There  are  now 
on  the  Navy  List  90  chaplains  and  71  naval  instructors,  of  whom  46 
persons  hold  both  positions.  Of  the  71  naval  instructors,  1  is  the  Di- 
rector of  Education,  30  are  attached  to  the  ships  bearing  midshipmen 
and  naval  cadets,  5  are  in  the  training  ships  for  boys,  9  instruct  in  the 
Britannia,  G  at  the  Naval  College,  13  are  performing  duty  as  chaplains, 
and  the  remainder,  7,  are  unattached. 

'This  rule  is  not  generally  observed,  however.  Evidence  before  the  Greenwich 
committee,  Q.  1852. 


22  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

Candidates  for  appointment  as  naval  instructors  must  not  be  under 
20  nor  over  35  years  of  age.  They  must  pass  a  preliminary  examination 
in  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  elementary  mechanics, 
Latin,  and  French ;  but  university  graduates,  who  have  passed  with  a 
certain  distinction,  may  dispense  with  all  the  subjects  but  French.  On 
passing  the  examination,  candidates  are.  admitted  to  the  Koyal  Naval 
College,  and  remain  there  one  session  of  nine  months,  passing  an  exam- 
ination at  its  close. 

4. — MEDICAL  SERVICE. 

Although  the  education  of  medical  officers  in  the  Eoyal  Navy  forms 
no  part  of  the  scheme  laid  down  for  other  officers,  yet  as  it  forms  a  branch 
of  education  in  the  naval  service,  it  may  be  proper  to  give  an  outline  of 
it  here.    The  grades  of  medical  officers  are — 
Inspector-general  of  hospitals  and  fleets. 
Deputy  inspector-general  of  hospitals  and  fleets. 
Fleet-surgeon. 
Staff-surgeon. 
Surgeon. 

Candidates  for  the  medical  service  must  not  be  under  20  nor  over  28 
years  of  age,  and  must  have  been  licensed  to  practice  under  the  Medical 
Act.  Their  physical  fitness  is  tested  in  a  preliminary  examination.  In 
the  professional  examination  the  principle  of  limited  competition  is  in- 
troduced. The  candidate  is  first  examined  in  the  required  subjects,  and 
he  may  then  undergo  a  voluntary  examination  in  elective  subjects,  the 
marks  for  which  are  added  to  those  given  in  the  obligatory  examina- 
tion, and  assist  materially  in  determining  the  successful  competitor.  The 
required  subjects  are — 

Anatomy  and  physiology. 

Surgery. 

Medicine,  including  therapeutics  and  diseases  of  women  and  children. 

Chemistry  and  pharmacy,  and  a  practical  knowledge  of  drugs. 

The  required  examination  is  partly  practical,  and  includes  operations 
on  the  dead  body,  the  application  of  surgical  apparatus,  and  the  exam- 
ination of  medical  and  surgical  patients  at  the  bedside.  . 

The  voluntary  examination  includes  comparative  anatomy,  zoology, 
natural  philosophy,  physical  geography,  botany  with  special  reference 
to  materia  medica,  French,  and  German;  and  any  of  the  subjects  may 
be  selected  by  the  candidate. 

After  passing  this  examination,  candidates  are  required  to  attend  the 
course  of  practical  instruction  in  the  medical  school  at  Ketley  on — 

1.  Hygiene. 

2.  Clinical  and  naval  and  military  medicine. 

3.  Clinical  and  naval  and  military  surgery. 

4.  Pathology  of  diseases  and  injuries  incident  to  the  naval  and  mili- 
tary service. 


THE  STAFF  AND  CIVIL  CORPS.  23 

On  passing  the  examination  at  the  close  of  the  Xetley  course,  and  not 
till  then,  candidates  are  eligible  for  a  commission  as  surgeon  in  the  Navy. 

After  completing  three  years'  full-pay  service,  surgeons  may  be  ex- 
amined for  the  rank  of  staff-surgeon,  but  they  cannot  be  promoted  until 
they  have  served  five  years,  two  of  which  must  be  in  a  ship  actually 
employed  at  sea.  Certain  peculiar  points  are  to  be  noted  in  this  exam- 
ination. A  number  of  written  questions,  framed  by  the  professors  at  Net- 
ley,  and  approved  by  the  Director-General  of  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  Navy,  are  forwarded,  sealed,  twice  a  year,  in  January  and  July, 
to  Haslar  and  Plymouth  Hospitals,  and  to  each  of  the  foreign  hospitals. 
The  necessary  arrangements  are  made  and  a  day  fixed  by  the  com- 
mander-in  chief  on  the  station  and  the  chief  medical  officer,  and  notice 
is  given  to  surgeons  who  are  eligible.  On  the  day  fixed  the  candidates 
are  assembled,  and  the  papers  are  opened  in  their  presence  by  the  chief 
medical  officer.  At  the  close  of  the  examination  the  work-papers,  signed 
and  sealed  by  the  writers,  are  delivered  to  the  senior  medical  officer, 
who  transmits  them,  unopened,  to  the  Director-General  of  the  depart- 
ment, under  whose  directions  they  are  finally  examined.* 

5. — MARINE  ARTILLERY  AND  LIGHT  INFANTRY.! 

Admission  to  the  Marine  Artillery  as  probationary  lieutenants  is  offered 
to  the  successful  candidates  in  order  of  merit,  according  to  the  number 
of  vacancies,  at  the  open  competitive  examination  for  admission  to  the 
Eoyal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich.  This  examination  is  held  twice 
a  year,  in  July  and  December,  by  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners.  The 
limits  of  age  are  from  16  to  18,  and  of  height  5  feet  5  inches.  The  suc- 
cessful candidates  are  appointed  lieutenants  on  probation,  and  join  the 
Naval  College  at  Greenwich  for  a  course  of  two  years. 

On  passing  out  of  the  College  the  probationary  lieutenants  are  sent  to 
the  Excellent  for  a  course  in  gunnery  and  torpedo  instruction,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  which  they  join  headquarters  and  are  instructed  in  their  drill 
and  military  duties,  for  service  ashore  and  afloat. 

Admission  to  the  Marine  Light  Infantry  is  obtained  in  the  same  way 
as  that  to  the  Marine  Artillery,  by  open  competition,  except  that  the 
examination  is  held  at  Sandhurst  instead  of  Woolwich.  The  limits  of 
age  are  from  17  to  20,  but  they  are  varied  for  university  graduates  and 
lieutenants  in  the  militia  who  are  eligible  for  Army  commissions.  The 
successful  candidates  are  appointed  lieutenants  without  any  further  trial, 
seniority  being  determined  as  usual  by  the  order  of  merit  at  the  exam- 
ination. On  passing  they  join  their  divisions  at  once,  and  are  instructed 
in  their  drill  and  military  duties,  going  through  a  course  of  garrison  in- 
struction. 

*  Full  information  in  regard  to  medical  education  in  the  English  Navy  will  be  found 
in  the  admirable  report  of  Dr.  Richard  C.  Dean,  Medical  Inspector,  U.  S.  N.,  pub- 
Jished  by  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

*  Regulations,  May  14,  1877,  Navy  List,  p.  501. 


24  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

6.— PAYMASTERS,  SECRETARIES,  AND  CLERKS. 

The  duties  pertaining  to  these  civil  branches  of  the  Navy  are  performed 
by  what  is  essentially  a  single  corps,  though  with  a  somewhat  loose  or- 
ganization, having  apparently  a  regular  line  of  promotion  through  the 
four  grades  of  paymaster,  assistant  paymaster,  clerk,  and  assistant  clerk. 
In  general,  the 'course  of  this  promotion  seems  to  be  tolerably  regular, 
though  officers  are  sometimes  appointed  in  other  grades  than  the  lowest. 
The  clerks  and  assistant  clerks  act  not  infrequently  as  assistant  pay- 
masters, and  they  perform  duties  at  sea  similar  to  those  of  captain's  and 
paymaster's  clerks  in  the  United  States  Navy.  Both  paymasters  and 
assistant  paymasters  may  also  be  detailed  as  secretaries  to  flag  officers. 
A  special  examination  enables  them  to  qualify  as  secretaries,  and  they 
may  also  qualify  as  interpreters  in  the  same  manner  as  line  officers.* 

Two  examinations  for  assistant  clerkships  are  held  semi-annually  at 
the  Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  in  June  and  November.  The  limits  of 
age  for  candidates  are  from  15  to  17  years,  and  they  must  produce  cer- 
tificates of  birth,  good  conduct,  and  good  health.  They  must  also  pass 
a  medical  examination. 

The  mental  examination  is  competitive,  the  number  of  competitors 
for  each  examination  being  fixed  by  the  Admiralty.  It  consists  of  two 
parts ;  a  test  examination  and  a  voluntary  examination  for  competition. 
The  subjects  and  relative  weight  are  as  follows : 

I. — TEST  EXAMINATION. 

Marks. 

1.  Writing  from  dictation  in  a  legible  hand 100 

2.  Writing  a  letter  on  a  given  subject 75 

3.  Writing  the  substance  of  a  chapter  or  portion  of  a  chapter  read  out,  taking 

into  consideration  the  time  iu  which  this  exercise  is  performed 75 

4.  French ;  reading  and  translation  from  French  into  English,  and  from  English 

into  French,  and  grammar 150 

5.  Addition,  simple  and  compound,  with  reference  to  time 50 

6.  Arithmetic  generally 250 

7.  Modern  geography  and  English  history 150 

8.  Scripture 100 

II. — VOLUNTARY  EXAMINATION. 

9.  Elementary  mathematics,  viz.,  algebra,  including  quadratic  equations  and 

problems  producing  them,  and  the  first  three  books  of  Euclid 200 

10.  Latin ;  translation  of  passages  from  books  usually  read  at  schools,  translation 

of  English  into  Latin,  and  grammatical  questions 200 

11.  The  German,  Spanish,  or  Italian  languages,  as  in  French 100 

12.  Elementary  physics,  viz.,  chemistry,  heat,  and  properties  of  solids  and  fluids, 

electricity  and  magnetism 150 

13.  Drawing ;  free  hand  and  from  models 100 

In  the  test  examination,  40  per  cent,  is  required  in  each  subject  in 
order  to  pass.  Of  the  voluntary  subjects  not  more  than  three  may  be 
taken,  unless  drawing  be  one,  in  which  case  four  may  be  taken. 

*  Regulations  of  September,  1874,  Navy  List,  p.  501. 


THE    STAFF   AND    CIVIL    CORPS.  25 

less  than  20  per  cent,  must  be  obtained  in  any  one  of  the  volun- 
tary subjects  in  order  that  it  may  be  reckoned  towards  the  total.  If  a 
candidate  fails  to  pass  the  test,  he  cannot  appear  at  any  subsequent  ex- 
amination ;  but  if  he  passes  the  test,  and  yet  is  unsuccessful  in  the  com- 
petition, he  can  compete  once  again  at  the  following  examination,  even 
though  he  may  be  over  age. 

Test  examinations  are  held  for  promotion  to  the  grades  of  clerk  and 
assistant  paymaster. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FORMER  SYSTEMS  OF  EDUCATION. 

The  way  in  which,  the  present  complicated  system  has  grown  up  can 
only  be  fully  understood  by  reference  to  former  regulations. 

The  Naval  Academy  was  first  established  at  Portsmouth  dockyard  in 
1729,  for  the  education  of  40  students.  The  age  at  admission  was  be- 
tween 13  and  16.  In  1806  the  name  of  the  school  was  changed  to  the 
"  Eoyal  Naval  College,"  and  in  1816  the  age  was  fixed  at  from  12£  to 
14  years.  The  course  lasted  two  years,  and  comprised  various  branches 
of  elementary  mathematics  and  English  studies,  somewhat  similar  to 
the  present  Britannia  course.  After  leaving  the  college,  the  students 
served  for  a  year  as  tl  volunteers  of  the  first  class,"  on  board  cruisers, 
and  were  then  rated  as  midshipmen.  After  six  years'  service  as  mid- 
shipmen, and  after  passing  an  examination  in  seamanship  and  naviga- 
tion, they  became  mates  (the  present  sub-lieutenants),  and  were  eligible 
for  promotion  to  lieutenants.  During  the  term  of  service  at  sea,  some 
little  instruction  in  navigation  was  given  by  the  chaplains,  or  naval 
instructors,  if  there  happened  to  be  any  on  board. 

Only  a  part  of  the  young  officers  of  the  Navy  went  through  the  course 
at  the  Naval  College,  and  those  who  did  had  no  incentive  to  continue 
their  studies  after  they  left  it.  Accordingly,  in  1837,  the  college  was 
abolished,  and  the  efforts  of  the  Admiralty  were  directed  towards  the  im- 
provement of  the  coqis  of  naval  instructors. 

In  1839  the  Eoyal  Naval  College  was  again  opened,  but  on  an  entirely 
different  basis ;  in  fact,  it  was  practically  another  establishment.  It  was 
to  provide  ''further  means  of  scientific  education"  for  a  certain  number 
of  officers  and  mates,  the  latter  of  whom  studied  at  the  college  for  a 
year.  At  the  same  time  the  instruction  given  on  shipboard  was  im- 
proved and  broadened.  By  subsequent  orders  the  college  was  extended 
so  as  to  take  in,  in  a  certain  measure,  students  in  the  higher  ranks  of 
the  Navy  and  marines,  officers  qualifying  for  the  marine  artillery,  mas- 
ters, naval  instructors,  and  engineers.  Its  intention  was  to  teach  ad- 
vanced pupils,  and  it  corresponded  to  the  present  college  at  Greenwich, 
as  its  predecessor  had  corresponded  to  the  Britannia. 

"Rut  the  Admiralty,  which,  in  1837,  discovered  the  want  of  higher 
education  in  the  Navy,  and  to  that  end  abolished  the  old  college,  in  1857 
discovered  the  want  of  elementary  training,  and  again  opened  a  junior 
school,  this  time,  however,  without  abolishing  the  other.  The  new  school 
was  the  beginning  of  the  present  Britannia  system,  though  much  has 
since  been  changed  in  details.  It  comprised  a  stationary  training  ship, 
;an  easy  entrance  examination,  and  a  course  of  fifteen  months,  afterward 
lengthened  to  two  years.  The  limits  of  age  at  admission  were  fixed  at  13 
and  15  years,  which  were  changed  in  1859  to  12  and  14,  then  to  12  and  13, 


FORMER    SYSTEMS    OF    EDUCATION.  27 

and  lastly  to  12  and  13  J.  In  1868  a  special  sea-going  training  ship  was 
attached  to  the  school,  but  this  has  since  been  discontinued,  and  cadets 
are  now  sent  to  sea  in  every  variety  of  large  cruiser.  The  course  in  the 
sea-going  ship  lasted  a  year.  The  examination  for  admission  to  the 
school  was  competitive,  only  half  the  number  of  candidates  examined 
receiving  appointments.  The  number  nominated  varied  from  40  to  80, 
and  the  number  appointed  was  always  one-half  5  but  competition  was 
entirely  done  away  with  in  1875. 

After  leaving  the  special  training  ship,  cadets  were  rated  midshipmen 
and  began  their  regular  duties  in  ships  of  the  fleet.  Here  they  had  still 
some  limited  instruction  from  naval  instructors,  or  navigating  officers, 
or  officers  specially  detailed  for  the  duty.  A  half-yearly  examination  of 
a  somewhat  crude  character  was  held  by  the  captain,  and  at  the  end  of 
two  years  and  a  half  (later  eighteen  months)  midshipmen  passed  the 
thorough  intermediate  examination  in  navigation,  chart-drawing,  sur- 
veying, steam,  French,  and  seamanship.  In  1873  both  the  half-yearly 
and  the  intermediate  examinations  were  discontinued,  and  in  their  stead 
full  examinations  were  held  in  January  of  each  year.  These  new  annual 
examinations  differed  from  the  intermediate  examinations  in  several 
points,  but  chiefly  in  the  addition  to  the  required  subjects,  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  mechanics,  and  hydrostatics.  The 
change  was  made  on  account  of  the  general  complaint  that  junior  officers 
forgot  or  neglected  the  elementary  mathematics  they  had  already  learned. 
In  1875  the  annual  examinations  were  placed  in  July,  and  the  half-yearly 
examinations  were  revived  in  December,  a  regulation  still  in  force.  Mean- 
while a  more  important  change  had  been  accomplished  in  the  final  abo- 
lition of  the  Naval  College  at  Portsmouth,  which  had  been  in  existence 
since  1839,  and  the  opening  of  the  new  college  at  Greenwich,  with  a 
vastly  improved  organization,  on  the  1st  of  February,  1873. 

It  will  be  well  to  notice  in  this  connection  the  School  of  Naval  Archi- 
tecture, first  opened  in  1811  at  Portsmouth,  and  closed,  for  no  particular 
reason,  in  1832.  It  was  reorganized,  with  considerable  changes,  as  the 
Central  School  of  Mathematics  and  Naval  Construction,  and  closed,  with 
as  little  reason  as  before,  about  1853.  In  1864  a  third  school  was  opened 
at  South  Kensington,  which,  in  1873,  was  united  with  the  Naval  College 
at  Greenwich ;  and  this  last  organization  bids  fair  to  be  permanent. 

It  will  be  seen  froin  the  above  sketch  of  the  history  of  naval  educa- 
tion in  England  that,  while  there  has  been  undoubted  progress,  it  has 
been  after  a  long  series  of  changes,  experiments,  renewed  experiments, 
and  expedients  of  all  kinds,  from  which  even  now  it  cannot  be  said  that 
a  harmonious  or  satisfactory  system  has  been  evolved.  In  fact,  it  is 
rather  a  combination  of  makeshifts,  resulting  from  a  series  of  tentative 
and  spasmodic  efforts  in  almost  every  form  which  naval  education  is 
-capable  of  taking.  The  naval  administration  never  seems  to  have 
looked  at  the  subject  as  a  whole,  from  the  beginning  in  the  entering 
examination  of  cadets  to  the  final  stage  at  the  promotion  to  sub-lieu- 


28  NAVAL    EEUCATION GREAT   BRITAIN. 

tenants,  and  to  have  worked  out  a  systematic  plan  which  should  have 
both  consistency  and  coherence.  It  appears  rather  to  have  adopted  from 
time  to  time  such  partial  views  as  were  presented  to  it  by  advocates  of 
a  particular  theory,  by  officers  who  leaned  one  way  or  another,  a  pro- 
cess which  has  sometimes  resulted  in  its  going  back  upon  its  own 
tracks,  and  making  experiments  which  had  been  already  proved  failures. 
This  is  partly  due  to  the  want  of  attention  hitherto  given  to  the  subject, 
a  want  which  is  now  in  a  fair  way  to  be  met  Every  year  more  is  to  be 
heard  in  the  way  of  discussion  of  naval  education,  and  every  year  more 
comprehensive  and  reasonable  views  seem  to  gain  ground.  That  the 
government  is  likely  to  stop  at  its  present  stage  in  reforming  the  edu- 
cation of  officers  is  very  improbable ;  and  as  the  Naval  College  at  Green- 
wich is  now  firmly  established,  it  will  hardly  be  many  years  before  fur- 
ther, and  perhaps  more  radical,  changes  take  place  in  the  English  system. 


CHAPTEE   V. 

NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE. 

The  training  school  for  naval  cadets  is  at  Dartmouth,  a  picturesque 
old  town  in  South  Devonshire,  on  the  river  Dart,  about  two  miles  from 
its  mouth.  Two  old  ships  of  the  line,  the  Britannia  and  Hindostan,  are 
moored  head  and  stern  in  the  stream,  and  on  board  of  these  two  ships 
the  cadets  sleep,  study,  and  live.  They  go  ashore  only  for  amusement, 
or  in  case  of  serious  illness,  the  only  parts  of  the  establishment  which 
are  on  land  being  the  hospital,  gymnasium,  bowling-alley,  park,  and 
cricket-field.  One-half  of  the  cadets  sleep  in  the  Hindostan,  and  all 
have  meals  and  musters  in  the  Britannia,  the  two  ships  being  connected 
by  a  bridge.  The  Britannia  has  six  studies  and  one  large  lecture-room 
under  the  poop.  The  main  deck  is  the  sleeping  place  for  the  two  upper 
forms,  with  baths  in  the  bow,  and  the  captain's  cabin  is  aft  on  this 
deck.  The  middle  deck  is  used  for  muster  and  inspection,  and  has  the 
wardroom  and  cabins  in  the  after  part.  The  lower  deck  aft  is  devoted 
to  the  cadet's  mess.  The  orlop  contains  a  model-room  and  officers' 
cabins,  and  is  also  the  men's  berth-deck. 

In  the  Hiiidostan,  which  is  a  two  decker,  there  are,  as  in  the  Britannia, 
six  studies  under  the  poop.  On  the  main  deck  are  officers'  cabins  and 
one  study  and  place  for  muster.  The  lower  deck  is  the  berth-deck  for 
the  two  lower  forms. 

All  the  masts  and  spars  are  removed  from  the  two  ships,  except  the 
foremast  and  bowsprit  of  the  Britannia,  which  are  set  up  and  fully  rigged. 

Attached  to  the  Britannia  as  a  tender  is  the  Dapper,  a  screw  gun-boat, 

with  engines  of  262  horse-power,  bark-rigged,  and  used  for  exercises  in 

seamanship.    There  are  also  two  launches,  schooner-rigged,  a  schooner - 

' yacht  of  50  tons,  six  launches,  and  thirty  gigs  and  dingeys ;  the  last 

for  amusement. 

The  officers  of  the  establishment  consist  of  a  captain,  commander,  two 
staff-commanders,  and  three  lieutenants  5  a  chaplain,  and  the  requisite 
number  of  surgeons  and  paymasters ;  one  chief  naval  instructor,  eight 
naval  instructors,  two  French  masters,  two  drawing  masters,  and  one 
Latin  master;  and  warrant  officers,  comprising  gunner  and  carpenter, 
and  four  boatswains.  There  are  also  three  or  four  officers  attached  to 
the  Dapper. 

1. — EXAMINATION  FOR  ADMISSION. 

Cadets  are  nominated  by  the  Admiralty.  The  number  seems  not  to 
be  prescribed  by  law,  but  averages  about  13  at  each  half-yearly  exam- 
ination for  admission.  The  examinations  for  admission  are  held,  as  a 
matter  of  convenience,  at  the  Eoyal  Xaval  College  at  Greenwich,  on  the 
third  Wednesday  in  June  and  the  last  Wednesday  in  November ;  but 


30  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

the  appointments  date  from  the  loth  July  and  January  following.  The 
limits  of  age  are  fixed  at  not  less  than  12  nor  more  than  13£  years,  at 
the  date  of  appointment. 

A  medical  examination  of  the  usual  kind  is  first  held,  at  which  it 
must  appear  that  the  candidate  is  free  from  any  physical  defect  of  body, 
impediment  of  speech,  defect  of  sight  or  hearing,  and  predisposition  to 
constitutional  disease ;  and  he  must  be  generally  active  and  well-devel- 
oped for  his  age.  Candidates  rejected  at  the  medical  examination  arer 
upon  approval  by  the  Admiralty,  finally  excluded  from  the  Navy. 

The  mental  examination  covers  three  days,  and  is  conducted  by  the 
Admiralty  examiners,  under  the  Director  of  Studies.  It  includes  the 
following  subjects : 

Hours. 

1.  Wrjting  English  from  dictation '. 

2.  Reading  and  oral  parsing 

3.  Arithmetic 2J 

4.  Elementary  algebra 1£ 

5.  Elementary  geometry 1 

6.  Latin 2 

7.  French li 

8.  Scripture  history 1£ 

Candidates  are  required  to  make  40  per  cent,  on  each  subject ;  and 
those  who  fail  are  allowed  to  come  up  a  second  time  at  the  next  exami- 
nation, six  months  later.  A  third  trial  is  never  allowed,  nor  a  second 
trial  if  the  candidate  is  over  thirteen  at  the  date  when  he  should,  if  suc- 
cessful, have  entered. 

The  character  of  the  examination  is  simple,  and  the  standard  may 
fairly  be  called  high  for  boys  of  this  age.  The  third  subject,  arithmetic, 
includes  proportion  and  vulgar  and  decimal  fractious,  and  there  are  no 
puzzling  or  difficult  questions,  nor  any  involving  long  calculations.  No. 
4,  algebra,  includes  simple  equations  with  one  unknown  quantity;  and 
the  questions  are  chiefly  simple  examples  in  the  four  elementary  processes,, 
with  one  or  two  very  easy  equations.  No.  5,  geometry,  includes  defini- 
tions, axioms,  postulates,  and  demonstrations  of  the  first  twelve  propo- 
sitions in  the  first  book  of  Euclid's  Elements.  The  paper  in  Latin,  No. 
6,  consists  of  translation  of  a  passage  from  Caesar  or  Nepos,  the  expla- 
nation of  some  of  the  more  common  constructions,  and  a  few  simple 
sentences  in  Latin  composition,  and  is  a  thorough  test  as  far  as  it  goes. 
In  French,  No.  7,  the  paper  is  also  elementary,  and  omits  translation  into 
French,  but  includes  grammar.  The  use  of  dictionaries  is  allowed  in 
both  tbese  examinations. 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  examination  for  admission,  until  the 
year  1875,  was  competitive,  the  number  of  candidates  designated  being 
double  the  number  of  vacancies.  The  system  was  changed,  owing  to  the 
severe  effects  of  such  a  competition  upon  the  nervous  system  of  boys 
of  that  age,  and  the  excessive  cramming  that  it  fostered. 

It  should  be  added  that  seven  nominations  are  given  annually  in  the 
colonies.  In  these  cases,  candidates  pass  their  examination  on  board 


NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE.       31 

the  flagships  abroad,  and  are  then  sent  to  England  to  join  the  Britannia, 
either  in  a  returning  man-of-war  or  in  a  mail  steamer. 

2.— COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

The  length  of  the  course  is  two  years,  or  four  terms  of  five  months 
each.  The  terms  are  from  about  the  1st  of  February  to  the  loth  of  July, 
and  from  the  end  of  August  to  the  20th  of  December.  There  are  three 
vacations :  six  weeks  at  midsummer,  five  weeks  at  Christinas,  and  two 
at  Easter. 

There  are  four  forms, — or  classes,  as  they  would  be  called  in  America, — 
corresponding  to  the  four  terms;  the  first  form  being  composed  of  cadets 
admitted  last.  The  cadets  are  also  divided  into  two  watches,  and  each 
form  is  subdivided  into  two  classes,  half  of  each  class  being  in  one  watch 
and  half  in  the  other.  The  eight  naval  instructors  have  charge  of  the 
eight  classes  in  their  allotted  branches,  and  each  instructs  his  own 
class  during  the  whole  time  it  remains  in  the  ship,  taking  the  two  watches 
of  the  class  alternately.  The  natural  objections,  in  regard  to  unequal 
marking,  &c.,  that  present  themselves  to  such  an  arrangement,  are  met 
by  the  fact  that  the  real  test  of  a  cadet's  work  is  the  final  examination, 
which  is  conducted  and  marked  by  the  examiners  sent  down  annually 
from  the  Royal  Naval  College  for  the  purpose. 

There  are  no  recitations,  in  the  American  sense  of  the  word,  on  board 
the  Britannia,  but  the  time  passed  with  instructors  is  devoted  to  study, 
oral  instruction,  oral  questioning,  and  practice,  in  an  informal  manner, 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the  instructor  and  the  needs  of  his  class. 
This  time  occupies  twenty-eight  hours  a  week — three  hours  every  morn- 
ing, and  two  and  a  half  hours  every  afternoon,  except  Wednesday  and 
Saturday.  One  hour  on  every  day,  except  Saturday,  is  devoted  to  even- 
ing study.  There  is  also  a  period  of  early  morning  study,  for  half  an 
hour  before  breakfast,  for  the  twro  upper  forms. 

The  various  branches  of  study  are  arranged  in  two  groups  for  con- 
venience of  organization.*  The  first  group  comprises — 

Arithmetic. 

Algebra. 

Geometry. 

Trigonometry,  plane  and  spherical. 

Navigation  and  nautical  astronomy. 

Dictation. 

Essay  writing. 
The  second  comprises — 

Instruments,  chart  drawing. 

French. 

Drawing. 

Seamanship. 

Latin. 

Astronomy  and  physical  geography. 

Natural  philosophy. 

*  The  tabular  programme  of  study  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  Note  B. 


32 


NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 


Of  the  twenty-eight  hours  of  instruction,  fourteen  are  given  to  each 
group — that  is,  three  mornings  and  two  afternoons;  the  watches  alternat- 
ing in  the  different  periods  between  the  two  groups  of  study. 

The  following  tables  will  show  the  distribution  of  time  for  the  twenty- 
eight  hours  of  mental  work  : 

I.— WATCH  IN  STUDY. 


Subjects. 

dumber  of  boars  in  each  form. 

First 
form. 

Second 
form. 

Third 
form. 

Fourth 
form. 

Hours. 
3 
3 
3 
3 

Hours. 
2i 
3 

? 

Hours. 

Hours. 

3 
2 
3 
2 

3 
2 
2i 
3 

Euclid              

Spherical  trigonometry  

Dictation  :  

1 

Navigation  .-  

2 

I    I 

2i 

1 

Essay  

1 

1 

Total  

14 

14 

14 

14 

II.— WATCH  OUT  OF  STUDY. 


Instruments  

u 

2f 

2| 

French  

si 

31 

8* 

3i 

2i 

2 

2 

Seamanship  

41 

3| 

3 

3 

Latin       .      ...           

21 

<>i 

2 

2 

if 

11 

Physics  

| 

2 

Total  

14 

14 

14 

14 

NOTE.— For  no  very  apparent  reason  the  cadets  engaged  with  the  studies  of  Group  I  are  said,  in  the 
official  language  of  the  school,  to  be  the  "watch  in  study";  while  those  engaged  with  Group  II  are 
said  to  be  "out  of  study." 

The  instruction  of  the  watch  in  study,  or,  in  other  words,  all  the 
instruction  given  in  the  first  group  of  studies,  is  given  by  the  eight 
naval  instructors.  The  hour  for  evening  study  is  also  devoted  to  these 
Subjects,  under  the  direction  of  the  naval  instructors,  each  instructor 
directing  his  own  pupils.  The  "early  morning"  study  is  given  on  three 
days  in  the  week  to  seamanship,  on  one  day  to  drill,  and  on  the  other  two 
it  is  occupied  in  the  same  way  as  the  evening  study.  This  gives  the  naval 
instructors  an  aggregate  of  thirty-four  hours  a  week  of  work  with  their 
students,  an  amount  of  work  for  which  men  of  the  same  attainments 
could  not  be  obtained  in  America. 

The  principal  naval  instructor  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  all  in- 
struction given  by  naval  instructors  and  masters.  Except  in  the  lectures 
in  physics,  he  gives  no  direct  personal  instruction.  It  is  a  part  of  his 
duty  to  visit  frequently  all  the  class  rooms,  and  he  regulates  their  police 
and  discipline,  under  the  captain. 

No  studying  is  done  except  at  the  prescribed  times,  and  cadets  are 
even  obliged  to  have  permission  to  take  and  use  their  text-books  out  of 


NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE.       33 

these  hours.  No  marks  are  given  in  recitations,  if  that  name  can  be 
applied  to  the  questions  asked  by  instructors  during  the  period.  The 
instructors  merely  keep  a  journal  containing  memoranda  of  the  work 
done,  with  remarks  as  to  the  ability,  progress,  and  conduct  of  the  cadets 
under  their  charge.  A  daily  report  is  made  to  the  principal  naval  in- 
structor of  the  attention  of  each  cadet,  and  this  report  is  inspected  by 
the  captain.  Monthly  reports  are  also  made  of  the  progress  of-  each 
cadet.  Cases  of  serious  inattention  are  punished  by  one  or  two  hours 
of  extra  drill.  For  occasional  neglect,  or  for  trifling  offenses  in  the 
class-room,  the  principal  naval  instructor  may  stop  the  leave  of  cadets, 
except  for  one  hour  of  exercise.  On  such  occasions  the 'delinquents 
are  assembled  to  write  impositions  under  the  surveillance  of  the  cadet 
sergeant-major. 

The  courses  in  Group  I  would  not  be  considered  difficult  for  ordinary 
students ;  but  they  must  put  to  a  severe  test  boys  of  from  13  to  15  years 
of  age,  whose  only  preliminary  training  is  that  indicated  by  the  exami- 
nation for  admission.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  subjects  of  plane 
and  spherical  trigonometry,  theoretical  and  practical  navigation,  and 
nautical  astronomy.  The  theoretical  navigation  includes  astronomical 
geography,  plane  and  middle  latitude  sailing,  great  circle  sailing,  and 
the  Nautical  Almanac.  Practical  navigation  includes  doing  a  day's  work, 
and  finding  ship's  position.  The  other  subjects  are  algebra,  arithmetic, 
and  elementary  plane  geometry. 

Of  the  subjects  of  Group  II,  instruction  in  charts  and  instruments  is 
given  by  the  staff-commander.  It  is  confined  to  the  three  upper  forms, 
and  comprises  the  construction  and  use  of  charts,  of  the  sextant,  azi- 
muth compass,  theodolite,  barometer,  and  thermometer.  The  cadets  take 
and  work  out  their  own  observations  for  latitude  and  longitude,  error  and 
rate  of  chronometer,  &c.  During  winter  the  staff-commander  is  allowed 
to  take  cadets  of  the  two  upper  forms  from  other  instruction,  to  take 
observations,  when  the  weather  is  particularly  favorable.  Each  cadet 
is  required  to  have  his  own  sextant. 

Instruction  in  seamanship  is  in  charge  of  the  senior  lieutenant, 
assisted  by  the  other  executive  offiers,  and  by  the  warrant  and  petty 
officers.  The  officer  of  the  day  visits  all  branches  of  seamanship  in- 
struction frequently  during  study  hours ;  and,  assisted  by  the  signalman, 
gives  instruction  in  signals.  An  extra  hour,  two  afternoons  in  the  week 
(making  thirty  hours  a  week  of  instruction),  is  given  to  practice  in  sig- 
nals in  the  third  and  fourth  forms.  This  takes  place  between  5  and  6 
p.  m.,  on  the  middle  deck  of  the  Britannia. 

About  one-eighth  of  the  whole  working  time  of  the  Britannia  is  given 
to  what  is  generally  called  theoretical  seamanship.  It  is  chiefly  a  course 
of  book-and-model  work,  if  we  except  knotting  and  splicing,  boat-sailing, 
and  some  exercises  with  spars  and  sails  in  the  Dapper,  towards  the  end 
of  the  course.  Of  practical  seamanship,  meaning  thereby  the  manage- 
S.  Ex.  51 3 


34  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

inent  of  a  ship  under  sail  or  steam,  there  is  nothing  in  the  Britannia 
course. 

The  text  book  is  Nares's  Seamanship.  The  first  term  course  comprises 
the  naming  and  identification  of  the  parts  of  the  ship,  spars,  and  sails, 
and  standing  rigging  ;  the  points  of  the  compass,  signal-pendants,  knot- 
ting and  splicing,  pulling  boats,  and  steering  boats  under  oars.  The 
second  term  is  devoted  to  the  fitment  of  rigging  on  lower  masts  and 
yards,  and  bowsprit;  names  and  uses  of  parts  of  the  running-rigging; 
tackles,  blocks,  seizings,  log,  and  lead ;  a  little  farther  elementary  knowl- 
edge of  the  compass  and  of  signals,  and  questions  on  sailing  in  the 
launch.  In  the  third  term,  instruction  is  given  in  rigging  spars  gener- 
ally; setting  up  rigging  on  the  models;  lead  of  running-rigging ;  the 
fitment  of  sails;  working  anchors  (model);  boat-sailing  in  general,  and 
the  rule  of  the  road.  Instruction  in  furling  sails,  and  in  working  masts 
and  yards,  is  given  on  board  the  Dapper.  The  fourth  term  is  occupied 
with  a  general  review. 

Lectures  in  elementary  physics  are  given  in  the  "  science  room"  by  the 
chaplain  and  principal  naval  instructor  to  the  third  and  fourth  forms, 
one  lecture  a  week  to  each.  These  lectures,  which  last  one  and  one-fourth 
hours,  take  place  during  the  regular  hours  of  instruction,  the  cadets  assem- 
bling at  convenient  times  from  the  other  class-rooms.  The  subjects  of 
instruction  are — 

THIRD  FORM. — Mechanics,  Hydromechanics,  Pneumatics,  Acoustics. 

FOURTH  FORM. — Heat,  Light,  Magnetism,  Electricity. 

Instruction  in  Latin,  French,  and  drawing  is  given  by  the  masters  in 
those  branches.  In  Latin,  the  examination  is  not  one  to  give  any  diffi- 
culty even  to  negligent  students.  It  consists  of  a  passage  from  the  text 
4h at  the  class  has  read,  and  another  easy  passage,  new  to  the  pupils,  for 
which  they  are  allowed  a  dictionary.  There  are  some  questions  in  gram- 
mar, and  a  few  easy  English  sentences,  on  the  model  of  those  they  have 
studied,  to  be  turned  into  Latin.  The  French  examinations,  conducted 
by  the  professor  of  that  language  at  the  Naval  College,  are  more 
searching. 

3. — EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  are  held  twice  a  year,  at  the  end  of  each  term.  The 
papers  are  set  and  the  examinations  are  conducted  by  the  examiners  sent 
down  from  the  Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  under  the  supervision  of 
Dr.  Hirst,  the  Director  of  Studies,  who  also  conducts  personally  part  of 
the  viva  voce  examination.  The  examinations  are  of  great  importance 
in  the  Britannia  course,  as  they  constitute  the  ultimate  test  of  proficiency, 
the  only  exercise  at  which  marks  are  given ;  and  they  alone  determine 
the  seniority  of  the  cadets  and  their  ability  to  remain  at  the  school  and 
continue  the  course.  The  final  examination  also  fixes  the  amount  of  sea- 
service  time  allowed  to  each  cadet,  and  consequently  the  date  of  his 
promotion  to  midshipman. 


NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE.       35 

Cadets  are  required  to  obtain  a  certain  percentage  of  the  maximum ; 
but  the  passing  mark  is  so  low  in  all  branches  except  seamanship  that 
very  few  can  possibly  fail  to  get  it.  In  the  latter  branch,  the  passing 
limit  is  GO  per  cent,  for  each  form.  In  the  other  professional  subjects, 
and  in  all  branches  of  mathematics,  students  are  required  to  get  30  per 
cent,  in  the  lower  forms  and  40  per  cent,  in  the  fourth  form.  Deficient 
cadets  of  the  lower  forms  are  warned  by  the  Admiralty,  and  a  failure  on 
a  second  occasion  causes  their  dismissal  from  the  service.  Cadets  de- 
ficient at  the  final  examination  are  turned  back  for  a  term ;  or,  at  least, 
they  cannot  go  out  into  the  service  until  they  have  passed.  With  these 
rules  there  is  no  reason  why  any  lad,  unless  guilty  of  the  grossest  neg 
ligence,  should  fail  to  pass  the  Britannia  course. 

Certificates  of  proficiency  are  given,  at  the  final  examination,  of  three 
different  classes,  the  first,  second,  and  third.  The  certificates  have  a 
substantial  value  beyond  the  honor  they  confer,  in  lessening  the  time 
of  sea-service  required  before  promotion.  As  has  been  stated,  graduates  of 
Ihe  Britannia  must  serve  one  year  at  sea  as  naval  cadets  before  being  rated 
as  midshipmen.  But  cadets  who  take  a  first  or  second  class  certificate 
at  their  final  examination  are  allowed  to  count  a  certain  number  of 
months  of  this  service  as  performed,  and  accordingly  reach  their  pro- 
motion earlier.  The  certificates  are  given  in  conduct,  and  in  three  groups 
of  study — mathematics,  seamanship,  and  the  "extra"  or  non-professional 
subjects.  The  percentage  required  for  each  class  is  as  follows: 

I.  Seamanship:  Percent. 

First  class 90 

Second  class „ 80 

Third  class 60 

II.  Mathematics,  and  III.  Extra  subjects: 

First  class 70 

Second  class 50 

Third  class , 40 

The  time  allowed  in  months  for  each  certificate  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing schedule: 


First 
class. 

Second 
class. 

Third 
class. 

Seamanship    

3 
4 
2 
3 

1 

2 

1 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 

Extra  subjects  

Conduct  L  

12 

4 

0 

Cadets  who  obtain  first  class  in  four  departments  are  thus  allowed 
twelve  months,  and  are  rated  midshipmen  immediately  on  passing  out 
of  the  Britannia.  The  certificate  of  conduct  to  which  a  cadet  is  entitled 
is  determined  by  the  captain,  commander,  and  principal  naval  instructor, 


36 


NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 


reference  being  had  to  the  record  of  conduct  and  to  the  cadet's  general 
behavior  in  study. 

In  all  examinations,  cadets  are  distinguished  by  numbers,  the  key 
being  in  the  hands  of  the  captain  of  the  ship. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  weight  of  studies  in  making 
up  the  marks  of  the  cadets. 

RELATIVE  WEIGHT  OF  STUDIES:  MAXIMA.. 


Subjects. 

First 
form. 

Second 
form. 

Third 
form. 

Fourth 
form. 

150 

150 

)     , 

175 

175 

>     200 

150 

200 

200 

200 

150 

175 

175 

350 

300 

150 

175 

Navigation  practical  and  theoretical  

125 

200 

175 

Theoretical  navigation  and  nautical  astronomy  

175 

100 

100 

100 

125 

75 

75 

75 

100 

125 

125 

150 

200 

125 

125 

150 

200 

Charts       

100 

100 

50 

75 

150 

150 

125 

50 

50 

Total  

1,300 

1,500 

1  750 

2,000 

Seamanship  

160 

ICO 

180 

750 

4. — DISCIPLINE. 

The  regulations  of  the  Britannia  contain  few  prohibitions,  and,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  age  of  the  cadets,  serious  offenses  are  of 
rare  occurrence.  Coming  as  most  of  them  do  from  the  higher  classes, 
and  having  been  subjected  to  no  other  influences  than  those  of  a  well- 
ordered  home  or  school,  bad  habits  and  vicious  tendencies  have  had  no 
opportunity  to  form  or  develop,  and  offenses  are  all  of  that  minor  char- 
acter which  may  be  easily  dealt  with.  Graver  offenses  when  they  occur 
are  punished  in  a  way  suitable  to  the  age  of  the  cadets;  and  if,  as  some- 
times happens,  an  offender  is  incorrigible,  he  is  simply  removed  and 
restored  to  his  friends.  While  there  is  the  closest  and  most  careful 
supervision,  there  is  no  very  close  restraint,  because  there  is  no  need  of 
it.  On  the  contrary,  the  life  is  made  attractive  and  easy  by  utilizing 
every  means  to  this  end  that  can  be  obtained  from  the  surroundings. 

The  discipline  is,  in  form>  that  of  a  ship  of- war,  and  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  captain,  the  commander,  and  other  .executive  officers.  The  severer 
punishments,  of  a  somewhat  varied  and  elaborate  character,  are  ordered 
only  by  the  captain.  In  the  gradation  of  good  and  bad  conduct,  cadets 
are  considered  as  being  in  one  of  three  classes,  and  all  are  held  to  belong 
to  the  first  class,  unless  they  incur  the  penalty  of  being  lowered  to  the 
second  or  third,  according  to  the  gravity  of  their  offenses,  for  a  limited 
number  of  days.  During  this  time  they  are  subject  to  special  regula- 
tions.* 

*  Stated  in  detail  iu  the  Appendix,  Note  C. 


NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE.       37 

In  the  cadet  organization,  the  chief  captains  and  captains  assist 
the  officer  of  the  day  in  carrying  out  the  daily  discipline.  The  chief 
captain  of  the  day,  and  the  captain  of  the  mess-room,  taken  in  rotation, 
are  especially  charged  with  this  duty ;  but  the  cadet  officers  at  all  times 
assist  in  keeping  order  at  formations,  in  class-rooms,  at  mess,  and  on  the 
berth-deck,  when  cadets  are  turning  out  or  turning  in.  In  general,  they 
are  to  "do  their  utmost  to  uphold  the  regulations  of  the  ship."  The 
captains  are  especially  charged  with  the  protection  of  junior  cadets ;  and 
certain  privileges  are  allowed  them,  such  as  the  exclusive  use  of  a  part 
of  the  mess-room. 

5. — FEES  AND  ACCOUNTS. 

Instead  of  receiving  pay  during  the  period  of  pupilage,  as  is  the  case 
in  America,  naval  cadets  on  board  the  Britannia  are  required  to  pay 
the  government  for  the  benefits  they  receive.  The  fee  is  £70  per  an- 
num. In  the  case  of  sons  of  officers  making  application  the  fee  is  re- 
duced to  £40;  but  the  number  of  those  received  at  the  reduced  rate  is 
limited  to  ten  a  term,  forty  in  all  at  the  school,  and  it  is  understood  to  be 
allowed  only  to  those  who  need  it.  In  addition  to  the  regular  fee,  £40  or 
£70,  as  the  case  may  be,  cadets  pay  for  their  outfit,  clothes,  traveling 
expenses,  text-books,  instruments,  and  stationery,  and  even  for  the  re  - 
pair  of  their  chests  and  locks. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  government  supplies  the  mess-table,  and  gives 
the  cadets  a  weekly  allowance  for  pocket-money;  and  the  expenses 
for  all  amusements  are  paid  by  the  ship.  The  allowance  is  Is.  a  week 
for  each  cadet,  2s.  for  captains,  and  2s.  Qd.  for  chief  captains.  Cadets 
are  forbidden  to  open  an  account  with  tradesmen.  Such  money  as  may 
be  required  by  a  cadet  for  any  special  circumstances  is  advanced  by  the 
paymaster,  under  the  authority  of  the  captain,  and  charged  to  the  ca- 
det's account. 

A  supply  of  small  articles  of  clothing,  stationery,  &c.,  is  kept  in  store 
by  the  paymaster,  and  may  be  furnished  to  the  cadets,  at  cost,  with  a 
slight  percentage  to  cover  expenses. 

Cadets  are  forbidden  to  buy,  sell,  or  exchange  any  clothes  or  other 
articles  among  each  other.  Even  such  articles  as  cricketing  shoes  and 
bats  can  only  be  purchased  after  a  formal  written  consent  of  the  parent 
has  been  given  to  the  captain.  Pocket-money  is  stopped  for  injuring 
government  property. 

6. — MODE  OP  LIFE,  HEALTH,  AMUSEMENTS. 

SUMMER  UOUTI>'E. 
A.  M. 

5.25.  Turn  ont  cadets  for  No.  2  punishment. 

5.30.  Punishment  No.  2  fall  in. 

6.30.  Bugle.     Cadets  turn  out.     Bath.     (If  weather  permits,  cadets  bathe  from  the 

shore). 
6.35.  Punishment  No.  2  dismissed. 


236029 


38  NAVAL    EDUCATION  — GREAT    BRITAIN. 

A.  M. 

7.05.  Warning  bugle. 

7.15.  Muster  and  drill. 

7.50.  Dismiss  drills. 

8.00.  Prayers.     Breakfast. 

8.40.  Bugle  for  cadet  defaulters. 

8.50.  Muster  for  studies. 

10.20.  Interval,  ten  minutes. 

11.55.  Studies  dismissed.     Dress  for  dinner. 

P.  M. 

12.10.  Dinner. 

Cadets  laud  (Wednesday  aud  Saturday  defaulters  muster). 
1.30.  Return  on  board. 
1.40.  Muster  for  studies. 
4.05.     Dismiss  studies.     Mess-room  muster. 
4.20.  Cadets  laud.     Defaulters  drill.     Bath,  if  weather  permits. 
6.45.  Return  on  board.     Shift  clothing. 
7.10.  Muster. 
7.15.  Tea. 

8.00.  Evening  study. 
9.00.  Dismiss  eveniug  study. 
9.15.  Prayers. 
9.45.  Cadets  turn  in.     Officer  of  the  day  goes  round. 

The  only  material  difference  in  the  winter  routine  is  that  in  winter  the 
cadets  have  two  hours  (nearly)  on  shore  just  after  dinner,  aud  on  their 
return  have  studies  till  tea ;  while  in  summer,  they  have  shore  liberty 
for  two  hours,  between  afternoon  studies  and  tea,  and  only  a  short  recess 
on  shore  after  dinner.  On  Wednesday  and  Saturday,  the  whole  after- 
noon is  spent  on  shore. 

On  Sundays,  the  routine  is  as  follows: 

A.  M. 

6.45.  Cadets  turn  out.     Bath. 
7.45.  Breakfast. 
9.30.  Divisions. 
10.00.  Divine  service. 

P.   M. 

12.15.  Dinner. 

1.00.  Bible  class  (compulsory). 
2.00.  Bible  class  dismissed.     Cadets  laud. 
5.00.  Return  on  board. 
6.00.  Tea. 
7.30.  Prayers. 
9.00.  Cadets  turn  in. 

The  mess-table  of  the  cadets  is  carefully  regulated,  abundant,  and 
simple.  The  routine  of  diet  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  Xote  D. 
Cadets  are  wisely  forbidden  to  receive  parcels  containing  eatables. 

For  sleeping,  cadets  are  divided  between  the  two  ships,  two  forms 
being  assigned  to  each  ship.  They  sleep  in  hammocks.  A  large  staff 
of  servants  attend  the  cadets,  and  have  the  whole  care  of  their  clothes, 
boots,  and  bedding.  All  the  duties  of  this  character,  which  at  most 
military  and  naval  schools  devolve  oil  the  cadets  themselves,  are  in 


NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE.       39 

England  performed  by  servants.  The  necessity  of  this  kind  of  training 
for  boys  in  general  maybe  doubted,  but  it  is  certainly  useful  in  forming 
a  habit  of  self-reliance  in  regard  to  the  minor  personal  details  of  daily 
life,  and  in  enabling  young  officers  to  regulate  with  judgment  the  same 
details  among  the  men  who  will  afterwards  be  under  their  charge 
Cadets  are  not  allowed  to  go  to  the  sleeping-decks  during  the  day,  except 
when  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  their  chests. 

Close  attention  is  paid  to  dress  and  other  externals  on  board  the 
Britannia,  as  their  importance  in  the  training  of  young  naval  officers 
deserves.  A  full  outfit  is  required  when  the  cadet  first  joins  the  ship, 
and-  minute  regulations  prescribe  even  the  changes  of  underclothing. 
Great  care  is  taken  that  cadets  shall  not  suffer  from  the  effects  of  expo- 
sure on  shore  or  in  boats,  by  careful  inspection  of  clothing  when  they 
return  on  board  after  having  been  out  in  the  rain — a  precaution  that  the 
prevailing  habits  of  boys  of  this  age  renders  specially  necessary.  All 
repairs  of  clothes  and  boots  are  made  on  board  the  ship,  and  the  proper 
stowage,  care,  and  inspection  of  all  clothing  are  provided  for  by  the  most 
precise  regulations.  When  a  cadet  requires  new  clothing,  his  parent 
or  guardian  is  informed  of  the  fact,  and  a  request  is  sent  that  the 
articles  should  be  supplied  at  once.  Inspections  of  clothing  and  of  chests 
are  made  once  a  month  by  the  lieutenants  of  divisions,  and  a  report 
made  thereon  to  the  captain. 

The  uniform  is  of  dark  blue  cloth,  and  is  always  worn  on  ship  board. 
Working  suits  are  of  thick  flannel  or  pilot  cloth,  and  each  cadet  must 
have  two.  F^r  recreation  on  shore,  white  flannel  cricketing  shirts  and 
trousers  are  always  worn,  and  special  shirts  for  football. 

Though  a  ship  lying  at  anchor  is  not  in  every  way  the  most  healthful 
place  for  two  hundred  people  to  live  in  for  months  together,  yet  the 
precautions  taken  on  board  the  Britannia,  and  the  regular  and  active  life 
of  the  cadets,  seem  to  prevent  any  of  the  ill  effects  that  might  arise  from 
it.  The  bilge  of  the  Britannia  is  pumped  out  twice,  that  of  the  Hindostan 
four  times,  a  day.  The  holds  are  ventilated  through  shafts,  a  fire  being 
kept  up  in  each  hold  from  8  a.  m.  to  4  p.  m.  The  ventilation  of  all  other 
parts  of  the  ships  is  provided  for  by  regulations  so  minute  as  to  designate 
not  only  the  ports  which  shall  be  opened  at  night,  but  even  the  number 
of  inches  of  opening  required  in  each  case. 

On  the  return  of  cadets  from  leave  their  clothing  is  disinfected.  If  any 
cadet  has  had  a  contagions  disease  he  is  at  once  separated  from  the  others, 
and  his  clothing  and  bedding  subjected  to  a  heat  of  220°  in  the  drying 
machine ;  and  the  same  precautions  are  taken  with  clothing  of  others 
who  have  been  near  him.  Cadets  who  are  sick  enough  to  remain  in  bed 
are  not  detained  on  board  more  than  forty-eight  hours ;  and  if  the  dis- 
ease is  of  a  dangerous  character  they  are  transferred  at  once  to  the  hos- 
pital on  shore. 

There  is  a  sick  call,  or  its  equivalent,  three  times  a  day  on  board  the 
Britannia,  At  the  appointed  hours  the  medical  officer  is  in  the  sick  bay, 


40  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

ready  to  receive  and  treat  complaints  of  illness.    A  medical  officer  is  on 
board,  however,  at  all  times. 

The  gymnasium  is  on  shore,  directly  opposite  the  ship,  in  the  park 
above  the  landing  pier.  Exercises  are  so.arranged  by  forms  and  watches 
that  all  cadets  have  a  dumb-bell  drill  and  exercise  in  the  gymnasium 
twice  a  week,  the  only  distinction  being  that  one  exercise  in  the  gymna- 
sium is  voluntary  for  the  two  upper  forms.  Dumb-bell  drill  lasts  fifteen 
minutes,  and  takes  place  in  the  open  air  in  clear  weather.  The  hours 
for  gymnastic  exercise  are  not  those  best  suited  to  its  enjoyment,'  or  to 
getting  the  greatest  good  from  it,  being  before'  breakfast,  or  in  the 
evening.  i 

The  Britannia  and  Hindostan  are  fitted  with  salt-water  baths  and1  fresh- 
water shower-baths;  and  every  cadet  has  a  bath  in  the  morning  imme- 
diately after  turning  out;  fifteen  minutes  are  allowed  for  the  purpose. 
The  temperature  is  carefully  regulated,  and  is  never  allowed  to  go  below 
54°  nor  above  60°.  Cadets  also  have  a  fresh-water  hot  bath,  tempera- 
ture about  90°,  once  a  month  in  the  evening.  From  May  1  to  Septem- 
ber 1,  all  cadets  are  required  to  bathe  daily  in  the  river  from  the  shore. 
Swimming  is  regularly  taught  to  those  cadets  who  are  not  good  swim- 
mers on  their  admission  to  the  school. 

The  chief  amusements  of  the  cadets  are  cricket,  foot-ball,  boating,  and 
other  sports  which  are  found  at  every  English  public  school.  The  .park 
belonging  to  the  Britannia  covers  the  steep  hill-side  opposite  the  ship, 
above  the  shore  of  the  Dart.  Half-way  up  are  the  gymnasium  and 
bowling-alley.  On  a  level  plateau  at  the  top  is  a  well-kept  and  spacious 
cricket-field  and  play-ground.  As  liberty  on  shore  is  extended  to  two 
hours  a  day,  and  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday  to  the  whole  after- 
noon, there  is  ample  time  for  amusement  and  recreation.  Instead  of 
staying  on  shore,  if  they  prefer,  cadets  are  allowed  in  the  hours  of  recre- 
ation to  go  out  in  the  "blue  boats,"  but  each  boat' must  be  fully  manned, 
and  the  boats  are  not  allowed  to  go  beyond  certain  limits.  On  half- 
holidays,  in  fine  weather,  when  over  ten  cadets  volunteer  to  go,  a  sailing 
launch  takes  them  outside  in  the  harbor,  for  sailing  or  fishing;  but  the 
launch  always  has  an  instructing  boatswain  and  petty  officer,  and  must 
return  in  time  for  evening  muster.  The  three  small  sailing  cutters  may 
be  taken  by  cadets  of  the  third  form,  and  the  three  large  cutters  by  those 
of  the  fourth,  every  afternoon  in  good  weather.  The  cutters  must  al- 
ways have  at  least  three  cadets,  and  a  seaman  instructor  is  in  attend- 
ance when  they  leave  the  buoys  to  see  that  the  sails  are  properly  set. 

On  shipboard  and  in  wet  weather  cadets  can  amuse  themselves  with 
reading,  chess,  and  checkers.  The  library  of  the  school  contains  about 
1,000  volumes,  and  cadets  can  take  out  books  and  keep  them  a  fortnight 
Books  and  periodicals  are  also  kept  in  the  mess-room,  but  novels  which 
have  not  the  approval  of  the  principal  naval  instructor  are  forbidden. 
During  evening  study  cadets  who  do  not  choose  to  study  are  allowed  to 
"  skylark  "  on  the  middle  deck. 


NAVAL  CADETS  AND  THE  BRITANNIA  COURSE.       41 

Besides  the  daily  leave  there  are  three  regular  holidays,  or  "  fete  days," 
as  they  are  called,  during  the  year.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Cadets' 
Regatta,  on  a  Wednesday  afternoon  before  the  Easter  holidays,  when 
races  take  place  in  four-oared  gigs,  in  ten-oared  cutters,  and  in  sailing 
cutters.  The  competing  crews  are  made  up  by  forms,  by  studies,  by  all 
cadets  over  five  feet,  by  all  cadets  under  five  feet,  and  by  scratch  crews. 
Prizes  in  money,  ranging  from  5*.  to  £1,  for  each  boat,  are  given  to  the 
winners.  These  prizes,  amounting  to  £15  in  all,  are  paid  by  the  ship. 

The  second  fete  is  the  Queen's  Birthday,  when  a  whole  day  is  given;  an 
excursion  is  formed  by  train,  steamer,  or  other  conveyance,  a  lunch  is 
supplied  by  the  mess  steward,  and  expenses  are  paid  by  the  paymaster 
under  an  order  from  the  captain. 

The  third  fete  is  the  Athletic  Sports,  in  October.  It  takes  place  in  the 
cricket  field,  and  consists  of  walking  and  running  matches,  hurdle  races, 
throwing  cricket  ball,  and  jumping.  The  prizes,  amounting  to  the  value 
of  from  £10  to  £15,  are  furnished  by  the  paymaster. 

During  the  session  cadets  are  granted  temporary  leave  under  certain 
regulations.  On  Saturday  and  Sunday  afternoons  they  may  visit  their 
friends  in  the  neighborhood,  returning  by  9  p.  m.,  and  on  Wednesday, 
returning  an  hour  earlier.  Leave  beyond  Dartmouth  is  only  granted 
once  a  week,  and  no  leave  is  granted  during  examinations  or  in  the  fort- 
night after  vacations,  or  at  any  time  to  cadets  under  punishment.  All 
cadets  are  obliged  to  land  for  recreation  every  day,  unless  kept  on  board 
by  the  medical  officer. 

Great  care  is  taken  that  the  fourth  form  cadets  shall  have  their  proper 
share  in  the  boats  and  games,  and  shall  not  be  hazed  or  fagged  by  the 
upper  forms.  An  instructing  warrant- officer  is  sent  on  shore  during 
recreation  hours,  whose  special  duty  it  is  to  prevent  bullying  or  hazing  in 
any  shape.  When  older  cadets  are  found  engaged  in  it,  the  offense  is 
considered  as  of  the  most  serious  nature. 

In  considering  the  good  and  bad  points  of  the  Britannia  system,  the 
principal  defect  is  to  be  found  in  the  course  of  instruction.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  course,  as  indicated  by  the  examination  papers,  is 
far  in  advance  of  the  mental  powers  of  average  boys  of  the  age  prescribed 
for  cadets.  The  reason  that  more  do  not  fail  to  complete  the  course  is 
to  be  found  in  the  low  standard  of  passing,  and  in  the  system  of  cram- 
ming, carried  out  by  clever  tutors,  who  are  masters  in  the  art  of  coach- 
ing pupils  for  examinations.  In  seamanship  alone  the  passing  mark  is 
relatively  high,  but  the  course  of  book  and  model  work  is  one  that  pre- 
sents no  difficulties  and  exacts  little  concentration.  For  the  other  studies, 
no  one  among  the  persons  acquainted  with  the  system  in  England  seems 
to  pretend  that  the  students  come  anywhere  near  the  ostensible  standard 
or  carry  away  anything  like  real  knowledge  of  the  subjects  embraced  in 
the  programme.  The  statements  made  by  some  of  the  officers  and  pro- 
fessors of  the  Royal  Naval  College,  in  their  evidence  before  the  commis- 


42  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

sion  of  inquiry  in  1876-'77,  are  distinct  and  emphatic  on  this  point.  This 
is  the  Britannia's  defect.  But  in  respect  to  training  other  than  mental, 
in  all  especially  that  goes  to  make  character,  it  would  be  hard  to  find  a 
better  system,  or  one  more  judiciously  and  carefully  applied.  It  is  doubt- 
less in  view  of  this  that  the  Britannia  has  been  selected  for  the  training 
of  the  two  princes,  one  of  whom  will  eventually  be  the  heir  to  the  throne. 
The  regulations  for  the  government  of  the  school  and  the  daily  life  of 
the  pupils  strike  a  well-adjusted  balance  between  oversight  and  inde- 
pendence, restraint  and  freedom;  and  the  officers  upon  whom  devolves 
the  task  of  carrying  out  the  discipline,  from  the  captain  to  the  lieuten- 
ants, are  men  qualified  to  continue  to  the  young  cadets  the  highest  influ- 
ences of  the  best-ordered  homes,  and  to  engraft  upon  them,  by  their 
example  and  companionship,  the  practice  of  a  manly  self-reliance  and  a 
manly  self-restraint. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

SERVICE  AT  SEA  AS  MIDSHIPMEN. 

At  each  half-yearly  examination  on  board  the  Britannia,  forty  boys 
complete  the  course,  and  with  it  the  first  stage  in  their  career  as  naval 
officers.  Soon  after  they  are  detached  from  the  training  ship,  they  are 
ordered  to  a  sea-going  ship,  still  as  naval  cadets ;  and  it  is  here  that  they 
get  their  first  practical  acquaintance  with  the  actual  duties  of  their  pro- 
fession. The  Britannia  certificates  indicate  the  length  of  time  neces- 
sary as  naval  cadet  before  passing  for  midshipman.  When  this  time  is 
completed,  an  examination  is  held  on  board  the  ship  in  which  the  cadet  is 
serving.  The  general  examination  is  conducted  by  the  captain  of  the  ship, 
assisted  by  the  next  officer ;  and  the  naval  instructor — two,  if  possible — 
examines  in  navigation,  in  presence  of  the  captain  or  commander.  The 
subjects  of  the  examination,  with  the  relative  weight  of  each,  are  given 
in  the  following  table : 

EXAMINATION  FOR   RATING  AS   MIDSHIPMAN. 

Marks. 

I.  Knowledge  of  former  instruction 200 

II.  Ability  to  work  a  '/day's  work"  by  tables  as  well  as  by  projection;  to  find 
the  latitude  by  observation  of  the  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars ;  longitude  by  chronometer ;  and  to  work  an  amplitude 200 

III.  Knowledge  of  the  use  of  the  sextant  and  azimuth  compass,  and  observa- 

tions with  them 100 

IV.  State  of  sextant  and  other  instruments 50 

V.  State  of  log-books 100 

VI.  Knowledge  of  steering  and  managing  a  boat  under  oars  and  sails ;  knot- 
ting and  splicing ;  rigging  lower  masts  and  yards ;  use  of  the  hand  and 

deep-sea  lead 250 

VII.  Knowledge  of  great  gun,  rifle,  pistol,  and  cutlass  exercises 100 


1,000 

Certificates  are  granted  in  three  classes  for  final  marks  of  900  or  over, 
750,  and  GOO  respectively.  Cadets  failing  to  get  60  per  cent,  are  rejected ; 
those,  who  pass  are  immediately  rated  midshipmen.  In  this  grade  they 
remain  four  years  and  a  half,  at  the  end  of  which  they  come  up  for  pro- 
motion to  sub-lieutenants.  The  intermediate  time  is  spent  in  continu- 
ous sea-service.  In  January,  1879,  out  of  224  midshipmen,  there  were 
only  16  that  were  not  attached  to  a  cruising  vessel. 

During  the  four  years  and  a  half  of  sea-service  as  midshipmen  the 
"periodical  examinations"  are  held  in  July  of  each  year,  and  others, 
known  as  the  "  half-yearly  examinations,"  in  December.*  Of  the  two, 
the  July  examination  is  the  more  important  and  elaborate.  The  papers 
in  extra- professional  subjects  are  made  out  ac  the  Admiralty  and  sent 
to  the  various  ships,  on  board  of  which  the  examinations  are  to  take  place. 

*ln  the  new  Admiralty  Instructions  (1879)  both  examinations  are  designated  "half- 
yearly  examinations." 


44  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

The  examination  is  in  three  parts  : 

(1)  The  professional  examination  in  seamanship   (1,000),*  gunnery 
(600),*  and  steam  (400).* 

(2)  The  Admiralty  papers,  ten  in  number,!  viz  : 

1.  Arithmetic  and  algebra. 

2.  Geometry. 

3.  Trigonometry,  plane  and  spherical,  practical  and  theoretical. 

4.  Navigation ;  practical  (I)  and  theoretical. 

5.  Navigation  ;  practical  (II). 

6.  Chart  drawing. 

7.  Mechanics  and  hydrostatics. 

8.  French. 

9.  Steam ;  theoretical. 

10.  Extra  paper  of  advanced  questions. 

(3)  Work  done  in  the  course  of  the  previous  year,  viz : 

Marks. 

A  latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  sun 5 

A  latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  moon 6 

A  latitude  by  meridian  altitude  of  star H 

A  latitude  by  altitude  near  the  meridian 8 

A  latitude  by  altitude  of  the  pole  star 8 

A  latitude  by  double  altitude  of  sun 18 

A  latitude  by  double  altitude  of  star 18 

A  longitude  by  sun  chronometer , 10 

A  longitude  by  moon  chronometer .'. 13 

A  longitude  by  star  chronometer 10 

A  longitude  by  sun  lunar  chronometer 20 

A  longitude  by  star  lunar  chronometer 20 

Error  aud  rate  of  chronometer  (artificial  horizon)  from  two  observations  taken 

on  different  days 30' 

A  variation  by  amplitude 8 

A  variation  by  altitude  azimuth 10 

A  variation  by  time  azimuth 10 


Total 200 

The  examinations  in  seamanship,  gunnery,  and  steam  are  conducted 
by  the  officer  in  command,  assisted  by  the  commander  or  senior  lieuten- 
ant, gunnery  lieutenant,  and  chief  engineer,  respectively,  or  other  com- 
petent officer.  The  other  examinations  are  conducted  by  the  naval 
instructor  and  navigating  officer,  or,  if  there  is  no  naval  instructor,  by 
the  navigating  officer  alone.  The  observations  are  to  be  certified,  as 
having  been  taken  and  worked  by  the  junior  officer,  by  the  naval  in- 
structor, or  officer  acting  in  that  capacity  5  and  they  are  to  be  revised 
and  marked  by  him.  Observations  may  be  taken  until  correct  results 
are  obtained  5  by  which  means  every  officer  under  examination  has  the 
opportunity,  if  he  exercises  any  sort  of  diligence,  of  obtaining  full  marks 
for  his  sights.  In  addition  to  the  observations,  log-books  are  to  be 
written  up,  examined,  and  reported  on. 

*  Relative  weights. 

t  The  time  allowed  is  three  hours  for  each  paper,  except  8  aud  9,  for  which  three 
hours  are  allowed  in  the  aggregate. 


SERVICE    AT    SEA    AS    MIDSHIPMEN.  45 

The  examination  occupies  about  two  weeks.  At  its  close,  the  work- 
papers,  numbered  but  not  named,  are  examined  on  board  the  ship  by 
the  officers  conducting  the  examination.  They  are  next  forwarded  to  the 
flagship,  where  they  are  examined  anew  by  the  naval  instructor  on  board, 
or  by  a  substitute  designated  by  the  Commander-in-chief,  and  finally 
they  go  to  the  Admiralty.  Here  they  are  a  third  time  examined  by  Dr. 
Hirst,  the  Director  of  Studies  at  Greenwich  ;  and  an  exhaustive  report 
is  made  to  the  Admiralty  in  regard  to  them.  The  two  previous  reports 
are  expressly  ordered  to  be  published. 

The  half-yearly  examinations,  held  in  December,  comprise  papers  in 
arithmetic,  algebra,  trigonometry,  and  navigation,  questions  in  seaman- 
ship and  gunnery,  and  practice  in  gunnery,  and  in  musket  and  cutlass 
exercise.  The  captain  is  also  required  to  report  on  the  general  ability 
of  his  junior  officers,  specifying  tlieir  knowledge  of  steam,  and  their 
qualifications  in  knotting  and  splicing,  in  drawing,  and  in  observing; 
and  to  say  whether  they  keep  a  daily  and  seanianlike  reckoning,  what 
instruments  they  possess,  whether  they  are  careful  of  instruments, 
whether  they  can  use  the  mercurial  horizon  on  shore,  and  what  foreign 
languages  they  can  speak. 

All  these  reports  and  examinations  are  repeated  yearly  from  the  time 
when  a  cadet  leaves  the  Britannia  until  he  is  promoted  to  sub-lieuten- 
ant. It  will  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  examinations  are  not  pro- 
gressive in  their  character ;  the  papers  are  not  graduated  according  to 
the  length  of  the  officer's  services  or  training,  but  one  set  of  papers  is 
given  for  all.  The  object  of  the  examinations  is  therefore  not  to  test 
progress,  but  to  serve  as  a  simple  check  upon  indolence,  and  an  incen- 
tive to  keep  up  knowledge  already  acquired.  Indeed,  it  is  confessed 
that  midshipmen  make  no  advance  in  mental  acquisition  during  the 
long  period  of  sea-service.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  been  a  very  general 
complaint  that  the  longer  the  time  that  had  elapsed  since  they  left  the 
Britannia,  the  less  they  seemed  to  know  of  the  subjects  they  had  studied. 
It  was  to  meet  this  very  complaint  that  in  1873  the  periodical  examina- 
tions were  introduced,  with  a  list  of  elementary  subjects  resembling 
that  at  the  final  examination  in  the  Britannia.  It  is,  perhaps,  too  early 
to  see  .the  result  of  this  experiment,  but  it  is  asserted  that  already  act- 
ing sub-lieutenants  come  to  Greenwich  better  prepared,  and  that  this  is 
directly  traceable  to  the  periodical  examinations.  Perhaps  it  is  also  due 
to  the  introduction  of  a  more  systematic  arrangement  of  the  detail  and 
duties  of  naval  instructors  at  sea.  Formerly,  instructors  seem  to  have 
been  attached  to  ships  in  a  hap-hazard  way,  without  sufficient  reference 
to  the  midshipmen  on  board,  so  that  it  often  happened  that  a  young 
officer  passed  his  five  and  a  half  years  of  sea-service  without  ever  seeing 
one  of  them.  A  better  arrangement  is  now  in  operation,  and  as  much 
is  done  as  possible  to  correct  the  inherent  evils  of  the  system  of  carry- 
ing out  a  course  of  theoretical  training  on  board  of  regular  cruising 
ships. 


46  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

An  examination  of  Table  E  of  the  Appendix,  which  has  been  carefully 
prepared  from  the  Navy  List  of  January,  1879,  will  show  the  class  of 
ships  in  which  midshipmen  and  naval  cadets  are  serving,  the  number  on 
board  of  each,  and  the  distribution  of  the  naval  instructors.  From  this 
it  appears  that  all  the  ships,  having  junior  officers  on  board,  carry  an  in- 
structor, except  three,  the  Blanche,  Dauae,  and  Spartan,  where  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  is  so  small  as  hardly  to  warrant  the  expense;  and  even 
then  the  naval  instructor's  duty  can  be  done  by  one  of  the  ship's  offi- 
cers. The  distribution  of  teachers  and  pupils,  to  be  sure,  is  somewhat 
disproportionate ;  ships  like  the  Alexandra  and  Minotaur,  for  example, 
carrying  seventeen  or  more  midshipmen  and  cadets  each,  and  four  other 
ships  less  than  three  each  ;  while  all  have  a  single  instructor.  But,  on 
the  whole,  this  could  hardly  be  better  arranged  without  sacrificing  some- 
thing far  more  important  than  the  mathematical  instruction  given  at 
sea — the  whole  groundwork  of  professional  training.  For  it  is  here,  and 
here  only,  that  this  training  is  given,  and  it  is  this  training  which,  how- 
ever important  scientific  principles  may  be,  is  the  nine  qua  non  of  a  naval 
officer's  education.  The  Britannia  gives  little  of  this,  Greenwich  gives 
nothing,  and  the  Excellent  treats  only  one  phase.  It  is  at  sea  alone, 
on  board  a  seagoing  man-of-war,  either  practice-ship  or  regular  cruiser, 
that  a  young  officer  can  learn  his  profession.  Hence  the  midshipman's 
best  energies  at  sea  should  be  directed  to  this  end,  and  his  mathematical 
deficiencies,  which  can  be  made  up  later,  or  which,  under  a  better  sys- 
tem, would  have  been  met  earlier,  become  a  secondary  consideration. 

Whether  midshipmen  get  an  adequate  professional  training  under 
the  English  system  is  a  question  about  which  it  is  difficult  to  get  the 
data  necessary  for  a  satisfactory  answer.  Much  can  undoubtedly  be 
done  for  them  if  the  captain  is  so  disposed ;  but  unless  there  is  some 
prescribed  system  for  him  to  follow  he  is  not  likely  to  give  them  the  at- 
tention they  need.  The  captains  of  those  great  ships  have  had  far  too 
serious  work  on  hand  for  the  past  few  years  to  sacrifice  anything  even 
to  the  professional  training  of  junior  officers.  What  duties,  for  example, 
are  given  to  the  sixteen  or  twenty  midshipmen  on  board  the  Alex- 
andra, the  Minotaur,  the  Achilles,  or  the  Iron  Duke,  which  train  them 
in  practical  seamanship  ?  Of  practical  navigation,  as  far  as  it  consists 
in  taking  sights  and  laying  out  courses,  they  undoubtedly  get  much  ; 
but  how  are  they  to  acquire  the  needful  skill  in  the  management  of  a 
ship  under  sail  or  steam,  the  practiced  eye  for  wind  and  weather,  the 
ready  resource,  the  rapid  and  unerring  judgment,  that  distinguished  the 
old  seamen,  and  that  are  almost  as  necessary  for  the  seamen  of  to-day  ? 
These  things,  which  alone  can  make  a  man  an  efficient  watch-offi- 
cer, are  at  present  only  to  be  learned  by  the  unsatisfactory  process  of 
"picking-lip";  and  it  is  a  question  whether  more  would  not  be  learnt 
in  a  year's  practice-cruise  in  a  real  training-ship  than  in  five  years  of 
midshipman's  duty  on  board  an  ordinary  man-of-war.  Certainly,  if  the 
first  of  these  five  years  were  so  occupied  the  midshipman  would  arrive 


SERVICE    AT    SEA    AS    MIDSHIPMEN.  47 

at  his  seamanship  examination  better  prepared  in  the  fourth  and  most 
essential  subject,  "  tne  practice  of  maneuvering  ships,  under  all  circum- 
stances of  wind  and  weather  " ;  and  his  promotion  would  find  him  better 
qualified  for  performing  the  duties  of  officer  of  the  deck.* 

At  the  end  of  four  years  and  a  half  of  service  in  that  grade,  midship- 
men come  up  for  promotion  to  sub-lieutenants.  The  examination  is  in 
three  parts,  (1)  seamanship,  (2)  navigation  and  other  branches  of  math- 
ematics, and  (3)  gunnery.  Of  these,  the  first,  in  seamanship,  is  con- 
ducted at  sea ;  the  second,  in  navigation,  &c.,  at  the  Royal  Naval  College 
at  Greenwich,  after  six  months  of  instruction ;  and  the  third,  in  gunnery, 
on  board  the  gunnery  ship  Excellent,  at  Portsmouth,  after  a  course  of 
about  three1  months. 

The  examination  in  seamanship  is  ordered  by  the  senior  officer  pres- 
ent, on  the  application  in  the  midshipman,  after  he  has  reached  the  pre- 
scribed limit  of  service.  Application  must  be  made  within  six  months 
after  this  time.  The  examination  is  conducted  by  three  captains  or 
commanders.  The  subjects  of  the  examination  comprise  (1)  the  state 
of  the  candidate's  log-books,  in  which  track-charts  and  sketches  of  head- 
lands must  be  entered;  (2)  stowage  of  ship's  holds;  (3)  masting  ships, 
fitting  rigging  and  sails,  rigging  ship,  mooring  and  unmooring,  shifting 
masts  and  yards,  laying  out  anchors,  and  the  details  of  a  seaman's  duty 
in  all  its  branches ;  (4)  practice  of  icorlting  and  maneuvering  ships,  as 
officer  of  the  watch,  under  all  circumstances  of  wind  and  weather  /  (5)  flags 
and  signals,  fleet  evolutions,  and  stations  of  ship's  company.  The  last 
(5)  seems  to  be  considered  of  less  importance  than  the  others. 

An  officer  failing  to  obtain  a  certificate  in  seamanship  is  re-examined 
at  the  end  of  three  mouths ;  failing  then,  he  is  granted  a  second  re-exam- 
ination after  three  months  more.  If  he  fails  at  the  third  trial,  he  is  dis- 
missed the  service. 

On  receiving  a  passing  certificate, — first,  second,  or  third  class,  as  the 
case  may  be, — the  midshipman  is  granted  by  the  coiniiiancler-in-chief  an 
order  as  acting  sub-lieutenant.  He  is  borne  upon  the  Navy  List  as  an 
officer  of  that  grade,  and  his  seniority  depends  on  the  date  of  passing 
the  seamanship  examination.  He  remains,  however,  an  acting  sub-lieu- 
tenant until  he  has  passed  the  two  other  branches  of  his  examination 
for  promotion,  in  navigation  and  in  gunnery.  These  examinations  and 
the  courses  of  instruction  that  precede  them  form  part  of  the  organiza- 

*  This  defect  of  the  English  training  system  is  alluded  to  by  Captain  (now  Rear- Ad- 
miral) Lord  Gilford,  one  of  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty,  in  his  evidence 
before  the  Britannia  commission,  Q.  1703.  It  should  be  added  that  the  Queen's  Regula- 
tions and  Admiralty  Instructions,  recently  published  (February,  1879),  give  a  full  aud  suc- 
cinct programme  (p.  176)  for  instruction  of  junior  officers  in  seamanship,  and  certain 
general  regulations  for  work  under  the  naval  instructors.  In  order,  however,  to  ascer- 
tain the  value  of  these  regulations,  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  far  the  seamanship  in- 
struction is  theoretical  and  how  far  practical ;  whether  the  regulations  are  susceptible 
of  daily  and  regular  application  on  board  a  ship  of  war  at  sea,  and  how  minutely 
captains  are  obliged  to  follow  them. 


48  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

tion  of  two  distinct  and  important  establishments,  the  Royal  Naval  Col. 
lege,  and  the  gunnery-ship  Excellent.  Each  of  these  institutions  has 
many  peculiar  features,  and  each  has  a  variety  of  objects  aside  from  the 
training  and  examination  of  line  or  executive  officers.  It  will,  therefore, 
be  well  to  leave  at  this  point  the  consecutive  description  of  a  line  offi- 
cer's education,  which  has  been  followed  hitherto,  and  describe  the  gen- 
eral plan  and  organization  of  the  Greenwich  College  and  of  the  Excel- 
lent, taking  up  in  connection  with  each  the  course  and  examination  of 
sub-lieutenants  in  general  subjects  and  in  gunnery. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH. 

The  Royal  Naval  College  was  opened  in  February,  1873,  and  at  tlie 
same  time  the  college  at  Portsmouth  was  discontinued.  The  change, 
however,  was  more  than  a  removal  from  one  place  to  another ;  it  was 
almost  the  foundation  of  a  new  institution.  Its  aim,  as  put  forth  in  the 
circular  of  January  30,  1873,  announcing  the  opening,  was  to  provide 
for  the  education  of  naval  officers  of  all  ranks  above  that  of  midshipman 
in  all  branches  of  theoretical  and  scientific  study  bearing  on  their  pro- 
fession. With  this  view  courses  were  established  in  great  variety  for 
several  different  branches  of  the  service.  The  plan  was  conceived  in 
the  most  liberal  spirit,  with  an  entire  absence  of  the  professional  narrow- 
ness which  is  apt  to  characterize  such  an  institution.  It  was  distinctly 
stated  that  great  advantages  were  expected  to  accrue  from  the  con- 
nection established  through  the  college  between  naval  officers  and  dis- 
tinguished students  of  the  various  branches  of  science.  Still  further; 
the  college  was  not  only  to  afford  higher  instruction,  but  was  to  become 
a  nucleus  of  mathematical  and  mechanical  science,  especially  devoted  to 
those  branches  of  scientific  investigation  which  have  most  interest  for 
the  Navy ;  and  all  this  was  to  be  accomplished  without  interfering  in  any 
way  with  the  practical  training  of  officers  in  the  active  duties  of  their 
profession. 

The  college  has  been  fortunate  from  the  beginning  in  its  officers.  The 
successive  presidents,  Sir  Astley  Cooper  Key,  Admiral  Fanshawe,  and 
Sir  Charles  Shad  well  are  among  the  most  eminent  of  the  flag  officers  of 
the  English  Navy :  a  body  of  men  distinguished  throughout  the  world 
for  breadth  of  view,  for  maturity  of  judgment,  and  for  mental  vigor. 
The  Director  of  Studies,  Dr.  Hirst,  who  carries  on  his  shoulders  the 
academic  burdens  of  the  college,  is  one  of  those  rare  instances  of  the 
harmonious  union  of  a  profound  student  and  an  efficient  organizer,  and 
has  thus  been  enabled  to  fill,  with  extraordinary  success,  the  difficult 
duties  of  his  position.  The  professors,  chiefly  Cambridge  men  of  high 
university  standing,  are  eminently  fitted  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of 
the  college,  and  the  professional  department  is  supplied  by  able  con- 
structors and  engineers,  whom  the  Admiralty  has  always  at  command 
in  sufficient  numbers. 

The  seat  of  the  college  is  the  ancient  and  magnificent  group  of  build- 
ings formerly  devoted  to  Greenwich  Hospital.  The  buildings,  four  in 
number,  are  of  Portland  stone,  and  stand  on  a  high  terrace  close  to  the 
southern  bank  of  the  Thames,  forming  three  sides  of  a  large  quadrangle 
open  to  the  river.  With  the  exception  of  the  northwestern  hall,  which 
was  built  by  Charles  II  as  a  royal  residence,  they  date  from  the  reign 
of  William  III,  who  founded  Greenwich  Hospital  as  an  asylum  for  pen- 
S.  Ex.  51 4 


50  NAVAL    EDUCATION — GREAT    BRITAIN. 

sioned  seamen.  For  the  next  hundred  and  fifty  years  the  establishment 
was  kept  up,  having  all  the  time  from  one  to  three  thousand  disabled 
pensioners  within  its  walls. 

At  length,  in  18G5,  it  was  found  that  the  class  whom  it  was  intended 
to  benefit  would  prefer  to  commute  their  allowances,  and  to  live  at  their 
own  homes,  and  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  giving  them  that 
option.  The  great  majority  of  the  pensioners  accordingly  left  the  hos- 
pital, and  four  years  later  it  was  closed  as  an  asylum. 

When  the  commission  of  1870,  on  the  higher  education  of  officers, 
was  engaged  in  its  investigations,  its  attention  was  called  to  the  vacant 
buildings  of  Greenwich  Hospital  as  a  possible  substitute  for  the  insuffi- 
cient building  at  Portsmouth.  The  question  as  to  the  relative  advan- 
tages of  the  two  places  was  submitted  to  a  large  number  of  naval  officers, 
and  the  answers  of  more  than  three-fourths,  including  some  of  the  ablest 
of  the  older  officers,  were  decidedly  in  favor  of  Portsmouth.  It  is  curious 
that  the  reason  generally  given  for  this  view  was  the  fact  that  Ports- 
mouth was  a  dockyard,  and  that,  as  one  of  the  answers  puts  it  baldly, 
"  for  self-evident  reasons,  the  proper  place  for  a  naval  college  is  a  naval 
arsenal";  while  in  the  United  States  it  was  satisfactorily  shown  forty 
years  ago  that  a  naval  college  could  hardly  reach  its  highest  develop- 
ment as  an  adjunct  of  a  navy-yard.  The  committee  were  equally 
divided ;  the  civil  members  urging  the  claims  of  Greenwich  as  stead- 
fastly as  the  officers  did  those  of  Portsmouth.  The  chief  objection  to 
Portsmouth,  acknowledged  by  everybody,  was  the  inadequate  accom- 
modation afforded  by  the  ill-arranged  ami  dilapidated  building.  It  was 
necessary  either  to  move  or  rebuild.  The  college  also  needed  reorgani- 
zation badly,  but,  if  Portsmouth  was  really  the  right  place  for  it,  it 
could  of  course  be  reorganized  as  well  there  as  elsewhere.  It  is  difficult 
to  see  exactly  the  force  of  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  advocates  of 
Portsmouth.  The  reorganized  college  was  to  be  mainly  devoted  to 
scientific  and  mathematical  training,  for  which  the  dockyard  could  offer 
no  facilities,  and  for  which  it  seemed  a  positive  disadvantage.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  obtain  the  best  men,  as  instructors,  at  Portsmouth ; 
whereas  a  college  at  Greenwich,  by  its  nearness  to  London,  its  indepen- 
dent organization,  and  its  freedom  from  the  trammels  of  professional 
conservatism  and  professional  exclusiveness,  could  offer  fair  inducements 
to  the  highest  order  of  scientific  -talent.  For  the  students  themselves 
instead  of  the  incessant  din  and  turmoil  of  a  great  depot  of  naval  equip- 
ment and  repair,  there  was  the  quiet  seclusion  of  the  old  hospital,  with 
the  best  libraries,  museums,  and  lectures,  within  easy  distance ;  instead 
of  the  unvaried  association  with  officers  engaged  in  the  busy  details  of 
daily  work,  there  was  a  possibility  of  obtaining  breadth  of  view  and  fresh- 
ness of  thought  by  contact  with  the  most  vigorous  thinkers,  in  other  but 
still  kindred  lines  of  study.  The  only  branches  of  study  in  which  the  dock- 
yards would  give  advantages  were  engineering  and  ship  construction ; 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  college  students  except  engineers 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.        51 

and  constructors  were  inclined  to  profit  by  them,  and  these  would  be 
given  ample  dockyard  experience  wherever  the  college  might  be  placed. 

In  spite  of  the  generally  expressed  opinion  of  the  older  officers,  the 
Admiralty  decided  to  move  the  college  to  Greenwich.  Perhaps  senti- 
mental considerations  had  an  influence  with  some  of  the  advocates  of 
the  change  ;  and,  now  that  the  change  is  made,  the  force  of  such  co 
siderations  is  still  more  apparent.  Apart  from  the  fact  that  only  slight 
alterations  were  needed  to  convert  the  deserted  hospital  into  a  well- 
appointed  professional  college,  there  were  professional  associations  about 
it  which  seemed  to  fit  it  peculiarly  for  a  training  place  of  naval  officers — 
the  painted  hall,  with  its  noble  gallery  of  naval  pictures,  the  relics  of 
Nelson,  and  the  naval  monuments  and  trophies.  At  all  events,  what- 
ever may  have  been  the  reasons,  the  change  was  made,  and  the  1st  of 
February,  1873,  saw  the  opening  of  the  new  Naval  College. 

The  changes  in  the  buildings  as  they  stood  that  have  been  found  nec- 
essary are  not  very  considerable,  and  relate  only  to  inferior  arrange- 
ments. The  northwestern,  or  King  Charles's,  building  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  establishment,  containing  the  offices  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  Director  of  Studies,  and  the  studies — i.  e.  class-rooms — of 
the  main  body  of  students.  The  opposite  building  on  the  river  front, 
known  as  Queen  Anne's  building,  is  fitted  up.  as  a  naval  museum,  and 
contains  besides  the  relics  a  full  collection  of  models  of  great  historical 
as  well  as  professional  interest.  The  South  Kensington  collection  of 
models  has  been  placed  here,  comprising  a  series  of  ships  of  the  line 
from  the  Great  Harry,  of  Henry  VII's  time,  to  the  armor-plated  ship  of 
the  present  day.  In  the  east  wing  are  models  of  docks  and  dockyard 
works,  of  spars  and  boats,  and  of  engines.  There  are  also  collections  il- 
lustrating the  equipment  of  ships  and  the  various  kinds  of  projectiles. 
Probably  these  collections  will  be  much  improved  by  additions  made 
from  time  to  time,  which  can  readily  be  supplied  by  the  dockyards. 

The  southeast  building,  known  as  Queen  Mary's,  and  containing  the 
chapel,  is  used  by  the  engineer  officers  and  students,  and  by  the  con- 
struction students,  and  is  arranged  in  dormitories  and  a  mess-hall  for 
these  classes  of  officers,  who  have  a  separate  mess. 

In  the  southwest  building — King  William's — is  the  painted  hall,  and, 
in  the  room  beneath,  the  spacious  officers'  mess,  with  smoking  and  bil- 
liard rooms.  The  lecture-rooms,  laboratories,  studies,  and  sleeping - 
rooms  are  in  these  two  western  buildings — King  William's  and  King 
Charles's.  The  laboratories  are  especially  well-appointed,  having  been 
furnished  with  everything  required  for  the  advanced  study  of  physics 
and  chemistry,  with  the  greatest  care  and  at  very  considerable  expense. 
There  is  also  an  observatory,  where  the  use  of  fixed  instruments  is 
taught,  which  formerly  belonged  to  Greenwich  Hospital  School,  and 
which  has  recently  been  refijtted  and  attached  to  the  college.  Instruc- 
tion in  the  use  of  fixed  instruments  is  to  be  given  in  the  course  in  nauti- 


52  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

cal  astronomy.    For  marine  surveying,  the  Arrow,  a  double-screw  iron 
gunboat,  is  attached  to  the  college. 

The  staff  of  the  college  consists  of  a  flag  officer  as  president,  assisted 
by  a  captain  in  matters  of  discipline  and  in  the  internal  arrangements 
of  the  college  unconnected  with  study.  The  whole  system  of  instruc- 
tion is,  under  the  president,  organized  and  superintended  by  the  direc- 
tor of  studies.  The  latter  is  not  a  naval  officer,  and  has  nothing  to  do 
with  discipline,  nor  does  he  give  instruction  personally.  Besides  the 
president,  the  captain,  and  the  director  of  studies,  the  staff'  consists  of 
the  following : 

Two  professors  of  mathematics;  oue  for  engineers  and  constructors,  one  for  volun- 
tary students  and  gunnery  students. 

Professor  of  applied  mechanics. 

Professor  of  physics. 

Professor  of  chemistry. 

Professor  of  fortification  (captain  in  the  Royal  Marine  Artillery). 

Assistant  professor  of  fortification  (lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Marine  Artillery). 

Mathematical  and  naval  instructor,  and  lecturer  in  meteorology  and  naval  his- 
tory (naval  instructor;. 

Four  instructors  iu  navigation  (naval  instructors). 

Three  instructors  in  mathematics. 

Two  instructors  in  French. 

Instructor  in  German. 

Instructor  in  Spanish. 

Instructor  in  nautical  surveying  (staff  commander). 

Instructor  iu  steam  (engineer  officer). 

Instructor  in  applied  mechanics  (engineer  officer). 

Assistant  professor  of  physics  (engineer  officer). 

Demonstrator  in  physics. 

Demonstrator  in  chemistry. 

Instructor  in  naval  architecture. 

Assistant  instructor  in  naval  architecture. 

Instructor  in  marine  engineering. 

Instructor  in  marine  engine  drawing. 

Instructor  in  freehand  drawing. 

Naval  instructor  for  examining  duties. 

This  gives  a  total  of  34  officers  of  instruction  and  government.  There 
are  also  two  officers  iu  the  gunboat  Arrow,  a  medical  officer,  a  store- 
keeper, and  five  clerks;  in  all  43  persons.  In  addition  to  the  abover 
lecturers  to  the  number  of  perhaps  half  a  dozen  are  appointed  from  year 
to  year. 

The  courses  of  study  proposed  at  the  beginning,  which  have  mostly 
been  carried  out,  are  as  follows : 

1.  Pure  mathematics,  including  co-ordinate  and  higher  pure  geometry,  differential 

and  integral  calculus,  finite  differences,  and  the  calculus  of  variations. 

2.  Applied  mathematics,  including  kinematics,  mechanics,  optics,  and  the  theories  of 

sound,  light,  heat,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 

3.  Applied  mechanics,  including  the  theory  of  structures,  the  principles  of  mechanism,, 

and  the  theory  of  machines. 

4.  Nautical  astronomy,  surveying,  hydrography,  meteorology,  and  chart  drawing. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.        53 

5.  Experimental  science : 

a.  Physics,  viz,  sound,  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 
6.  Chemistry, 
c.  Metallurgy. 

6.  Marine  engineering,  in  all  its  branches. 

7.  Naval  architecture,  in  all  its  branches. 

8.  Fortification,  military  drawing,  and  naval  artillery. 

9.  International  and  maritime  law,  law  of  evidence  and  naval  courts-martial. 

10.  Naval  history  and  tactics,  including  naval  signals  and  steam  evolutions. 

11.  Modern  languages. 

12.  Drawing. 

13.  Hygiene,  naval  and  climatic. 

In  this  extensive  programme,  the  only  studies  which  have  not  yet,  in 
one  shape  or  another,  been  attempted,  are  naval  artillery,  the  law  of 
evidence  and  courts-martial,  and  hygiene ;  the  first  of  which  may  be 
assumed  to  be  adequately  taught  in  the  Excellent. 

Of  the  courses  in  the  list,  some  are  required  and  some  are  voluntary ; 
but  the  privilege  of  choice  is  only  given  to  those  classes  of  officers  whose 
attendance  at  the  college  is  voluntary,  and  even  then  under  certain  re- 
strictions. The  voluntary  students  are  officers  of  certain  grades  who 
are  admitted  to  the  benefits  of  the  college  on  their  own  application. 
They  receive  half-pay  during  their  attendance.  These  half-pay  officers 
comprise  captains,  commanders,  lieutenants,  staff  commanders,  navi- 
gating lieutenants,  and  naval  instructors.  There  are  also  other  offi- 
cers who  are  admitted  at  their  own  request,  and  who  have  some 
liberty  in  the  choice  of  studies,  but  who  are  not  half-pay  officers. 
These  are  the  officers  of  the  Marine  Artillery  and  Lght  Infantry,  and 
chief  engineers,  on  full  pay,  but  unattached  to  any  ship;  and  en- 
gineers and  assistant  engineers,  borne  for  full  pay  in  some  vessel  in 
commission.  Still  a  third  class  is  composed  of  students  admitted  at  their 
own  request,  but,  once  admitted,  pursuing  a  defined  course.  These  are 
persons  qualifying  for  naval  instructors  (either  chaplains  or  candidates 
from  civil  life);  private  students  in  naval  architecture  and  engineering, 
and  lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.  The  latter 
receive  full  pay  and  are  borne  upon  the  books  of  the  Excellent.  Lastly 
come  those  officers  whose  attendance  and  course  are  both  compulsory. 
These  are  acting  sub-lieutenants,  who  are  also  borne  in  the  Excellent, 
acting  navigating  sub-lieutenants,  probationary  lieutenants  of  the  Royal 
Marine  Artillery,  acting  assistant  engineers  (later  assistant  engineers), 
and  shipwright  apprentices,  otherwise  known  as  construction  students, 
or  students  in  naval  architecture.  The  three  classes  last-named  receive 
special  rates  of  pay.  It  may  be  added  in  regard  to  the  construction 
students  and  the  assistant  engineers,  that  their  attendance  at  the  school 
is  not  exactly  compulsory,  in  the  first  instance,  as  they  are  selected  by 
competition;  but  having  once  entered  for  the  position  their  course  of 
study  is  a  necessary  consequence. 

The  following  table  shows  the  classes  of  officers  pursuing  study  at  the 
college,  the  number  of  each,  the  duration  of  each  course,  and  its  charac- 


54 


NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 


ter  (whether  compulsory  or  voluntary).  The  number  of  officers  of  each 
class  is  given  as  it  stood  at  a  fixed  date,  the  1st  of  January  of  each  year, 
and  therefore  the  aggregate  does  not  represent  the  total  number  of 
students  who  have  attended  a  college  course.  The  table  is  taken  in 
part  from  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Naval  College,  and  in 
pai  (  bas  on  data  from  the  Navy  List. 

STUDENTS  AT  THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE,  1875-1879. 


Compul- 
sory or  volun- 
tary. 

Duration  of 
course. 

Description  of  students. 

Members,  January  1, 

1875. 

1876. 

1877. 

1878. 

1879. 

Compulsory  . 

Voluntary  .  .  . 
Compulsory  . 

Voluntary  .  .  . 

3  sessions  or 
years. 
Do  

1.  Assistant  engineers  

6 
11 

1 

7 
6 

6 
9 

1 
8 
4 

7 

6 
9 

6 
9 

(?) 
(?) 
10 

6 
9 

(?) 
(?) 
7 

2.  Ship  wright  apprentices  (construction 
students). 

3  sessions  .  .  . 
2  sessions  .  .  . 

Do 

3.  Private  students  }  f^gE  

6 
12 

4.  Probationary  lieutenants,  Royal  Ma- 
rine Artillery. 
5.  Probationary  lieutenants,  Royal  Ma- 
rines. 
6.  Probationary  lieutenants.  Royal  Ma- 
rine Light  Infantry. 
7.  Officers  qualifying  for  gunnery  lieu- 
tenants. 
8.  Officers  qualifying  for  torpedo  lieu- 
tenants. 

1  session  
Do  

10 
16 

(*) 
19 

(*)' 
18 

<*) 
20 
4 

18 
59 
10 
1 

6 

2 
26 

"Y 

I  I 

(*) 
16 
5 

37 
44 
2 

1 
2 

4 
32 

""a 

i 

2 

2 

8 

Do     

Do 

25 
74 
16 

1 

3 
'3 

18 
75 
11 
1 

2 

26 
46 
4 

2 

7 
39 
1 
3 

6 

6  months  
Do  
Do  

In   general, 
for  1  ses- 
sion. 
Do  

11.  Acting  navigating  sub-lieutenants  .  .  . 
12.  Officers  qualifying  for  naval  instruc- 
tors. 
13.  Captains  

Do  
Do  
Do  

15.  Lieutenants  

43 
""9" 

I     3 
2 
9 

56 

'"i* 

8 

2 

7 

16.  Staff-commanders  
17.  Navi°ratin°'  lieutenants  

Do  

is.  Marine  Artillery  offioew 

Do  

19.  Marine  Light  Infantry  officers 

Do  
Do  

20.  Chief  engineers  
21.  Engineers  

3 

7 

Do  

22.  Naval  instructors  
Total,  excluding  private  students.  .. 

237 

229 

182 

183 

180 

"Discontinued. 

The  session,  or  academic  year,  begins  on  the  1st  of  October,  and  ends 
on  the  30th  of  June,  except  in  the  case  of  officers  pursuing  a  six  months' 
course  (see  table),  who  join  at  periods  a  mouth  apart,  as  they  return 
from  sea.  From  the  30th  of  June  to  the  1st  of  October  the  college  has 
vacation,  and  leave  is  given  for  ten  days  at  Christmas  and  a  week  at 
Easter.  The  vacations  for  acting  sub-lieutenants  are  six  weeks  at  mid- 
summer and  a  month  at  Christinas.  The  arrangement  of  courses  ena- 
bles officers  who  desire  a  higher  theoretical  education  to  have  two  or 
three  years,  or  even  four  years,  of  study  at  the  college,  in  the  course  of 
their  career.  All  are  obliged  to  come  in  the  first  place  as  acting  sub- 
lieutenants. On  their  promotion  to  lieutenant  they  may  be  ordered  to 
Greenwich  while  waiting  their  turn,  and  may  thus  get  a  second  course, 
for  the  whole  session.  After  a  little  interval  they  may  apply  for  per- 
mission to  qualify  for  gunnery  duties,  and  they  will  then  pass  a  third 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       55 

term  of  study.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  them  from  coming  back 
again,  after  another  interval,  as  captains  or  commanders,  for  a  fourth 
course.  The  studies  will  not  be  consecutive.  A  considerable  period 
must  elapse  between  each  attendance — a  period  of  four  years  at  least  in 
the  case  of  half-pay  officers,  two  of  which  must  be  passed  at  sea.  Nor 
is  it  always  possible  for  an  officer  to  arrange  his  duties  so  as  to  carry  out 
such  a  plan ;  but  the  opportunity  is  given,  so  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  officers  who  have  the  inclination  and  talents  may  reach  a  higher 
point  of  scientific  culture. 

The  discipline  of  the  college  is  rather  that  of  a  university  than  of  a 
naval  establishment,  as  is  necessarily  the  case  where  very  few  of  the 
students  are  less  than  twenty  years  of  age,  and  a  number  have  reached 
the  prime  of  life.  Such  restrictive  regulations  as  exist  bear  chiefly  upon 
the  younger  students,  especially  the  acting  sub-lieutenants  and  acting 
engineer  officers  and  the  probationary  lieutenants  of  the  Marine  Artil- 
lery. Only  officers  on  full  pay  are  required  to  wear  uniform.  Captains, 
commanders,  and  chief  engineers  are  allowed  to  reside  outside  the  col- 
lege if  they  prefer ;  but  all  other  officers  must  occupy  rooms  and  join 
the  mess,  towards  which  they  receive  an  allowance  of  1*.  6d  per  diem. 
Special  permission  may  be  given  to  live  outside,  however,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, the  operation  of  the  rule  is  not  so  severe  as  would  at  first  seem  to 
be  the  case,  on  account  of  the  relatively  small  proportion  of  married 
lieutenants. 

The  difficult  subject  of  dealing  with  breaches  of  discipline  and  en- 
forcing regularity  is  in  charge  of  the  President,  assisted  by  the  captain 
of  the  college.  A  certain  surveillance  is  maintained  by  the  college  police. 
For  grave  offenses  a  court-martial  is  as  applicable  here  as  elsewhere  in 
the  service,  and  the  negligence  or  irregularity  of  voluntary  officers  may 
be  dealt  with  by  removal  from  the  college.  Misconduct  on  the  part  of 
the  younger  officers  pursuing  compulsory  courses  is  a  more  delicate  mat- 
ter, and  has  always  constituted  the  chief  difficulty  in  naval  shore  col- 
leges, where  the  course  followed  a  long  period  of  sea  service.  The  offenses, 
as  a  rule,  are  not  serious  enough  to  warrant  a  court-martial  or  removal 
from  the  service ;  removal  from  the  college  would  defeat  the  object  of 
the  college  itself ;  and  the  offenders  are  too  old  to  be  punished  in  the 
ordinary  way.  Fortunately,  at  Greenwich,  the  presence  of  the  older  offi- 
cers as  students  gives  a  certain  tone  to  the  establishment,  by  which  the 
younger  cannot  fail  to  be  affected,  and  the  compulsory  courses  are  so 
exacting  that  they  engross  pretty  thoroughly  the  time  of  the  junior 
officers. 

The  general  method  of  instruction,  like  that  of  the  Britannia,  is  a  sys- 
tem of  informal  exposition,  study,  and  practice  with  the  instructors. 
Recitations  in  the  ordinary  sense  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist,  certainly  no 
recitations  for  which  marks  are  given.  The  only  recorded  test  of  general 
results,  upon  which  certificates  are  given,  is  the  final  examination,  which 
occurs  at  the  end  of  the  session,  or,  in  the  case  of  sub-lieutenants,  at  the 


56  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

end  of  the  six  months'  course.  Examinations  are  generally  held  at 
Christmas  and  Easter,  and  in  some  courses  they  occur  with  great  fre- 
quency,— once  a  fortnight,  or  even  once  a  week.  These  examinations  may 
be  marked  or  not  as  the  professor  chooses ;  but  the  marks  only  serve  to 
test  progress,  and  have  no  bearing  on  the  final  result.  Text  books  serve 
rather  the  purpose  of  collateral  reading,  and  in  mathematics  they  are 
used  chiefly  as  collections  of  examples.  The  student  is  never  led  to  place 
his  chief  reliance  on  the  book,  in  acquiring  any  subject,  but  on  the  in- 
structor; in  this  way  the  bad  influence  of  textbooks  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  the  vicious  practice  of  slavishly  following  a  text  hardly 
exists.  At  the  same  time  the  objections  to  a  lax  lecture-system  are  re- 
moved by  the  practice  of  following  up  the  lecture  at  once,  often  in  the 
same  room,  by  test  exercises  accompanied  by  full  and  particular  explana- 
tion, mainly  on  the  subject  of  the  lecture  itself.  An  hour  of  blackboard 
exposition,  with  from  two  to  three  hours  of  work  in  the  class-room  im- 
mediately after  it,  is  the  usual  way  of  passing  the  morning  at  Greenwich, 
with  all  classes  of  students.  The  class-rooms,  or  studies,  as  they  are 
called,  are  furnished  with  tables,  at  which  the  students  work,  while  the 
instructor  moves  about  among  them,  answering  as  well  as  asking  ques- 
tions, and  endeavoring  to  supply  what  is  wanted  by  each  of  his  pupils. 
Mathematics  forms  the  backbone  of  all  the  courses.  In  fact  there  have 
been  general  complaints  that  the  college  leaned  too  much  in  this  direc- 
tion, without  affording  sufficient  scope  in  others.  This  objection  only 
refers,  however,  to  the  courses  for  half-pay  officers,  as  the  special  stu- 
dents who  are  to  make  naval  architects,  designing  engineers,  and  gun- 
nery officers,  can  hardly  have  too  much  mathematics,  and  the  other 
important  class,  that  of  sub-lieutenants,  is  not  likely  to  be  in  any  such 
danger. 

The  teaching  staff  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  corps  of  naval  in- 
structors. On  the  contrary,  the  most  important  work  is  in  the  hands  of 
professors  otherwise  unconnected  with  the  Navy.  The  principal  among 
these  are  the  two  professors  of  mathematics,  the  professor  of  applied 
mechanics,  the  professor  of  physics,  and  the  professor  of  chemistry. 
There  are  practically  three  professors  of  mathematics,  but  one  of  them 
bears  the  title  of  mathematical  and  naval  instructor,  and  belongs  to  the 
naval  corps.  These  three  take  charge  of  all  the  higher  instruction  in  this 
branch.  Each  of  them  has  an  assistant,  also  a  university  man,  and  not 
in  the  Navy.  One  professor  with  his  assistant  instructs  the  engineer  and 
construction  students.  The  assistant  also  takes  the  probationary  lieu- 
tenants of  the  Marine  Artillery.  The  second  professor  takes  the  gunnery 
lieutenants,  the  second-year  Artillery  lieutenants,  and  the  best  of  the 
half-pay  officers.  The  third  has  the  half-pay  officers  who  are  less  ad- 
vanced. For  the  separate  group  of  acting  sub-lieutenants,  whose  knowl- 
edge is  of  the  scantiest  character,  there  are  four  naval  instructors.  The 
professors  of  physics  and  applied  mechanics  have  engineer  officers  as 
assistants.  Fortification  is  taught  by  a  captain  in  the  Marine  Artillery, 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       57 

naval  construction  by  officers  in  the  construction  department  at  the 
Admiralty,  and  steam  by  iiaval  engineers. 

The  practice  of  separating  the  duties  of  instructor  and  examiner  is 
rigorously  carried  out,  and  no  papers  are  set  at  the  final  examinations 
by  members  of  the  regular  teaching  staff.  The  examination  of  the  act- 
ing sub-lieutenants  is  conducted  chiefly  by  a  naval  instructor  borne  es- 
pecially for  examinations,  who  has  no  duties  of  instruction.  He  sets 
and  marks  the  papers  in  mathematics,  navigation  and  nautical  astron- 
omy, and  meteorology.  The  examinations  in  steam,  physics,  French, 
and  marine  surveying  are  given  by  external  examiners  or  members  of 
the  staff  who  do  not  teach  sub-lieutenants.  The  general  examinations 
of  all  students,  voluntary  and  compulsory,  in  June,  which  last  three 
weeks  and  include  everything,  are  chiefly  conducted  by  outside  exami- 
ners specially  employed  for  the  purpose.  Even  here,  however,  the  Di- 
rector of  Studies  has  supervision,  and  all  papers,  marks,  and  reports  go 
through  his  hands.  Indeed  the  number  of  papers  for  which  he  is  nomi- 
nally responsible  is  so  great  that  it  would  be  simply  impossible  for  him 
to  give  all  of  them  even  the  most  cursory  inspection.  They  include  not 
only  voluntary  and  required  examinations  at  Greenwich,  but  also  the 
examinations  for  cadetships  and  clerkships,  the  semi-annual  Britannia 
examinations,  the  semi-annual  dockyard  examinations,  and  the  exami- 
nations of  junior  officers  afloat.  The  total  reaches  the  extraordinary  fig- 
ure of  over  270  sets  of  questions  and  11,500  work-papers,  a  year;  of  which 
176  papers  are  set  and  4,000  work-papers  are  marked  by  Mr.  Goodwin 
alone,  the  examiner  of  the  college. 

It  is  only  necessary,  however,  for  the  Director  of  Studies  to  give  such 
attention  to  the  work  of  the  outside  examiners  as  will  insure  unity  of 
purpose  in  the  questions  and  keep  them  within  the  limits  of  the  course. 
The  examiners  themselves  include  a  number  of  specialists,  generally  of 
large  experience  in  this  branch  of  educational  work.  Among  them  may 
be  mentioned  Prof.  A.  W.  Klicker,  examiner  in  natural  sciences,  Brase- 
nose  College,  Oxford ;  Prof.  C.  Niven,  examiner  in  mathematics,  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge ;  Mr.  Barnaby,  Director  of  Naval  Construction, 
and  Mr.  Wright,  Engineer-in-chief  of  the  Admiralty;  Professor  Un  win, 
of  Cooper's  Hill  College ;  Professor  Kennedy,  of  University  College,  Lon- 
don ;  Professor  Karcher,  of  Woolwich,  and  several  others.  These  ex- 
aminers do  not  constitute  a  mere  board  of  visitors  ;  they  receive  a  sylla- 
bus of  the  work  gone  over  by  each  class,  and  upon  this  they  actually  give 
questions  and  mark  papers,  thereby  insuring  to  the  Navy  a  rightly-di- 
rected course  of  studies  and  a  high  standard  of  scholarship. 

Special  courses  of  lectures  form  a  peculiar  and  important  part  of  the 
college  teaching.  They  may  or  may  not  form  some  part  of  a  required 
course  for  one  class  of  students,  but  they  are  open  to  officers  generally 
and  all  are  alike  permitted  to  benefit  by  them;  that  is,  all  the  voluntary 
students.  Notices  are  also  sent  to  the  naval  clubs,  and  officers  who  are 
not  students  are  invited;  and  the  attendance  at  the  lectures  is  usually 


58  NAVAL    EDUCATION  -  GREAT    BRITAIN. 

large.  The  lecturers  are  sometimes  members  of  the  college  staff  and 
sometimes  not.  Among  the  courses  may  be  mentioned  those  on  interna- 
tional law  (chiefly  relating  to  the  laws  of  war  at  sea)  by  Prof.  Mountague 
Bernard  ;  on  the  safety  of  ships,  the  behavior  of  ships  at  sea,  the  struct- 
ural arrangement  of  modern  ships  of  war,  and  the  tonnage  and  propul- 
sion of  ships,  by  Mr.  White,  of  the  construction  department  of  the 
Admiralty  ;  the  magnetism  of  iron  ships,  by  the  Astronomer  Eoyal  ;  the 
atmosphere  as  a  vehicle  for  the  transmission  of  signals,  by  Professor 
Tyndall;  the  strength  of  materials,  by  Professor  Cotterill  ;  naval  opera- 
tions on  shore,  and  the  effect  of  artillery  fire  upon  armor  ;  practical 
shipbuilding,  marine  engines  and  boilers,  naval  history,  meteorology, 
navigation,  and  nautical  astronomy.  All  of  these  courses  have  been 
given  once  at  least  since  the  foundation  of  the  school,  and  some  of  them 
are  repeated  from  year  to  year;  but  it  is  intended  that  an  elastic  qual- 
ity shall  be  given  to  this  extra-collegiate  teaching,  and  the  arrangement  of  | 
special  courses  lies  very  much  with  the  President  and  the  Director  of 
Studies.  The  importance  of  such  lectures,  given  by  specialists  who  are 
masters  of  the  art  or  science  they  undertake  to  teach,  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. Even  if  no  examinations  are  passed  and  no  questions  answered, 
the  mere  privilege  of  hearing  a  discussion  or  exposition  of  living  profes- 
sional subjects;  from  a  thoroughly  scientific  point  of  view,  is  an  immense 
stimulus  to  professional  improvement  and  a  powerful  agent  against 
professional  ignorance  and  ultra-conservatism. 

A  certain  amount  of  outdoor  practical  work  is  part  of  the  regular 
programme  of  the  college.  Wednesday  is  the  field-day  at  Greenwich  ; 
on  that  day  the  Marine  Artillery  lieutenants  have  their  field  surveying, 
and  all  the  open-air  exercises  take  place.  These  include  nautical  sur- 
veying, in  which  the  whole  day  is  passed  afloat,  open-air  sketching, 
military  surveying,  and  practical  instruction  at  the  engineering  works 
under  a  naval  engineer.  Some  of  these  exercises  belong  to  special 
courses,  but  all  are  open  to  half-pay  officers,  and  they  form  an  important 
and  valuable  feature  in  the  Greenwich  course. 

In  the  conventional  grouping  of  studies  at  the  college  will  be  found 
the  most  convenient  arrangement  for  considering  separate  classes  and 
courses.  According  to  this  the  groups  are  as  follows  : 

Group  A,  subdivided  into  Ai,  first  year  students,  A2,  second  and  third  year 
students  : 

1.  Assistant  engineers. 

2.  Construction  students. 

3.  Private  students. 

9.  Acting  assistant  engineers. 

20.  Chief  engineers. 

21.  Engineers. 


7.  Officers  qualifying  for  gunnery  lieutenants. 

8.  Officers  qualifying  for  torpedo  lieutenants. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREKNWICH.        59 

B2,  commonly  designated  half-pay  officers  : 

13.  Captains. 

14.  Commanders. 

15.  Lieutenants. 

16.  Staff-commanders. 

17.  Navigating  lieutenants. 

18.  Marine  Artillery  officers. 

19.  Marine  Light  Infantry  officers. 
22.  Naval  instructors. 

C: 

4.  Probationary  lieutenants,  Marine  Artillery. 
Separate  class: 

10.  Acting  sub-lieutenants. 

11.  Acting  navigating  sub-lieutenants. 

12.  Officers  and  others  qualifying  for  naval  instructors. 

The  groups  will  be  taken  up  in  the  following  order : 

1.  Gunnery  and  torpedo  lieutenants  and  half-pay  officers  (B1?  B2). 

2.  Probationary  lieutenants,  Boyal  Marine  Artillery  (C). 

3.  Acting  sub-lieutenants,  and  candidates  for  naval  instructors. 

4.  Engineer  and  construction  students  (A). 

1. — GUNNERY  AND  TORPEDO  LIEUTENANTS  AND  HALF-PAY  OFFICERS 

(GROUP  B). 

There  are  two  distinct  divisions  of  this  group :  Bl5  lieutenants  qual- 
ifying for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers,  and  B2,  half-pay  and  marine 
officers.  The  essential  subject  in  the  course  of  instruction  of  both 
divisions  is  mathematics.  For  half-pay  officers  it  is  the  only  obligatory 
subject,  though  even  here  a  certain  latitude  is  given  to  captains  and  com- 
manders. In  mathematics  the  more  advanced  of  the  half-pay  officers 
receive  the  same  instruction  as  the  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers,  attend 
in  the  same  class-room,  and  pass  through  the  same  course ;  while  the 
remainder  have  a  course,  a  study,  and  an  instructor  by  themselves.  In 
other  subjects,  the  courses  for  B:  and  B2  are  nearly  the  same,  with  this 
general  reservation,  that  gurfnery  and  torpedo  lieutenants  are  expected 
to  give  almost  undivided  attention  to  three  subjects,  mathematics, 
physics,  and  fortification,*  which  alone  count  in  determining  their  final 
certificate ;  while  half-pay  officers  take  their  choice,  after  mathematics, 
in  nearly  the  whole  range  of  subjects  taught  at  the  college. 

It  will  be  well  to  go  more  fully  into  the  details  of  instruction  in  this 
group  of  students,  especially  in  mathematics.  Of  the  two  divisions, 
the  first,  composed  of  gunnery  lieutenants  t  and  the  best  half-pay  officers, 
is  taken  by  the  junior  professor  of  mathematics,  Mr.  Lambert,  and  his 
assistant.  This  again  is  divided  into  two  sub-classes,  one  taking  a  some- 

*  Chemistry  and  marine  surveying  are  substituted  for  fortification  in  the  course  for 
torpedo  lieutenants. 

tThe  expression  "gunnery  lieutenants"  in  this  section  is  used  for  the  sake  of  brevity 
to  mean  officers  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  lieutenants. 


60  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

•what  higher  course  than  the  other.  The  first  hour  in  the  regular  morn- 
ing period  of  instruction,  from  9  to  10,  is  occupied  with  a  lecture  to  both 
sub-classes.  In  the  second  hour,  from  10  to  11,  the  higher  sub-class  has 
a  second  lecture  of  an  advanced  character,  and  the  lower  remains  "in 
study"  with  the  assistant.  The  third  hour,  from  11  to  12,  is  passed  by 
both  sub-classes  in  study  together,  working  under  both  instructors.  At 
the  end  of  each  lecture  a  task  is  given  to  be  done  before  the  next  lecture, 
which  may  be  worked  out  in  study,  or  taken  by  the  students  to  their 
rooms.  Much  work  is  done  by  the  officers  in  this  way  by  themselves; 
and  occasionally  the  professor,  of  his  own  accord,  visits  officers'  rooms 
to  give  them  assistance.  An  examination  is  held  every  Saturday  on  the 
work  of  the  previous  week  or  fortnight.  Marks  are  given  and  the  list 
is  published  on  Monday.  A  record  is  kept  of  these  marks,  but  they  do 
not  count  in  any  way  in  determining  final  position.  The  examinations, 
however,  are  found  to  consolidate  knowledge  and  serve  as  an  incentive 
to  exertion.  The  division,  in  its  course  of  one  session,  goes  over  algebra, 
trigonometry,  analytical  geometry,  statics,  dynamics,  hydrostatics,  the 
differential  and  integral  calculus,  and  the  applications  of  integral  calculus 
to  problems  in  physical  subjects,  as  dynamics,  hydrostatics,  and  astron- 
omy. The  practical  requirements  of  the  Navy  are  kept  steadily  in  view, 
and  the  standard,  in  general,  is  constantly  advancing. 

The  second  division  of  group  B,  composed  of  the  lower  half  of  the 
half-pay  officers,  is  in  charge  of  the  mathematical  and  naval  instructor, 
who  also  has  an  assistant  and  who  arranges  his  instruction  in  much  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  higher  division.  The  two  instructors  lecture 
to  different  halves  of  their  class  for  one  hour,  and  the  rest  of  the  morn- 
ing is  passed  in  study  with  both  instructors  together.  Test  examina- 
tions are  held  every  fortnight  or  three  weeks.  Officers  who  intend  to 
qualify  for  gunnery  lieutenants  not  infrequently  go  through  the  course 
of  this  division  as  half-pay  lieutenants,  and  after  an.  interval  come  back 
for  the  higher  course  with  the  other  division.  The  course  for  the  second 
division  is  much  less  advanced  than  the  other.  Most  of  the  officers, 
according  to  the  statement  of  the  instructor  in  charge,  know  next  to 
nothing  of  mathematics  when  they  come,  and  they  leave  with  moderate 
attainments.  They  begin  with  the  earliest  elementary  algebra  and  go 
as  far  in  trigonometry  as  the  abilities  of  the  class  will  allow.  In  addi- 
tion to  a  fair  knowledge  of  trigonometry  they  generally  go  through  some 
elementary  mechanics.  Calculus  does  not  appear  in  their  examination. 
As  to  the  character  of  the  mathematical  work  performed  by  this  class, 
it  is  stated  by  Prof.  W.  D.  Niven,  their  examiner  in  1876,  that,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  not  satisfactory.  There  is  a  large  proportion  of  the  class  who 
do  very  little,  and  there  are  very  few  who  make  a  really  good  appear- 
,ance,  while  the  gunnery  lieutenants  have  given  the  greatest  satisfaction. 
Perhaps  this  difference  is  due  to  the  fact  that  many  half-pay  officers 
neglect  mathematics  intentionally  in  order  to  give  closer  attention  to 
other  subjects ;  and,  in  any  case,  it  may  be  expected  that  the  standard 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.        61 

will  be  improved  when  the  influence  of  the  half-yearly  examinations  and 
of  the  improved  course  for  sub-lieutenants  is  more  fully  felt. 

The  instruction  in  physics  and  chemistry  comprises  two  formal  experi- 
mental lectures  a  week  in  each  branch,  which  are  also  attended  by  other 
classes  of  students,  and  at  least  two  afternoons  a  week  in  each  labora- 
tory, though  the  gunnery  lieutenants  do  not  take  the  practical  chemis- 
try. The  subject  of  physics  is  not  treated  mathematically ;  the  lectures 
are  purely  experimental ;  they  include  hydro-mechanics,  acoustics,  mag- 
netism, electricity,  heat,  and  light  Questions  are  given  after  each 
lecture  to  be  worked  out,  and  ample  opportunity  is  given  of  obtaining 
explanations,  the  assistant  and  demonstrator  being  in  attendance  every 
day  from  9  till  1.  In  the  physical  laboratory  such  operations  are  per- 
formed as  determining  the  specific  gravity  of  bodies,  making  and  read- 
ing accurately  the  barometer,  determining  the  resistance  of  conducting 
bodies,  and  so  on.  Examinations  are  held  at  Christmas  and  Easterr 
but  the  marks  given  have  no  weight  in  the  final  count. 

A  thorough  course  in  field  fortification,  for  two  afternoons  in  each 
week,  is  given  by  the  professor,  a  captain  in  the  Marine  Artillery,  to 
gunnery  officers,  to  half-pay  officers  who  desire  it,  and  to  officers  of  the 
Marine  Artillery.  The  latter  have  also  permanent  fortification  on  two 
afternoons,  and  together  with  the  Marine  Infantry  officers,  semi-weekly 
lectures  in  military  history,  and  a  weekly  exercise  in  topographical 
drawing.  In  general,  with  the  exception  of  chemistry  and  steam,  and 
the  other  branches  which  have  been  mentioned,  marine  officers  share  in 
the  instruction  given  to  half-pay  students  and  attend  the  same  classes. 

The  number  of  half-pay  officers  allowed  annually  on  their  own  appli- 
cation is  fixed  by  regulation  for  each  grade,  but  the  limit  has  not 
yet  been  reached.  Twenty-five  captains  and  commanders  may  be  ap- 
pointed in  this  way,  four  staif-commanders,  ten  navigating  lieutenants,  two 
officers  of  the  Marine  Artillery,  and  six  of  the  Marine  Light  Infantry.  The 
number  of  lieutenants  allowed  is  fixed  from  year  to  year,  and  though 
classed  with  half-pay  officers,  they  receive  an  addition  to  their  half-pay 
of  3.S-.  a  day  during  their  first  year,  and  full  pay  during  the  second  ;  the 
allowance  being  ottered  as  an  inducement  to  young  officers  to  perfect 
their  scientific  education. 

The  length  of  the  course  for  half-pay  and  gunnery  officers  is  a  single 
session  of  nine  months ;  but  those  of  the  former  class  who  arrive  late 
in  the  academic  year  are  allowed  to  stay  through  the  whole  of  the  next 
session,  unless  required  for  active  service.  No  appointments  are  made 
in  any  year  after  Easter.  A  limited  number,  not  exceeding  ten  in  the 
case  of  lieutenants,  are  allowed  to  remain  a  second  session  for  study,  if 
recommended  by  the  President  and  examiners. 

Half-pay  officers  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  an  examination  for  admis- 
sion ;  certainly  not  an  examination,  the  results  of  which  are  brought  for- 
ward and  kept  for  reference.  Its  object  is  merely  to  show  what  each 
officer  knows  and  can  do  when  he  comes,  in  order  to  place  him.  It  is 


62  NAVAL    EDUCATION SREAT    BRITAIN. 

said  that  each  officer  must  show  that  he  knows  a  fair  amount  of  elemen- 
tary mathematics ;  but  no  one  is  rejected,  and  in  the  case  of  the  higher 
officers,  captains  and  commanders,  the  examination  hardly  amounts  to 
more  than  a  conversation  with  Dr.  Hirst,  the  Director  of  Studies,  as  to 
what  they  want  to  do,  and  where  they  are  ready  to  begin. 

There  is  some  irregularity  in  the  entrance  and  departure  of  half-pay 
officers,  as  they  may  join  at  other  times  than  the  beginning  of  the  aca- 
demic year,  and  they  may  be  detached  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
service,  before  their  nine  months'  course  is  ended.  This  is  especially 
the  case  with  lieutenants.  The  prospect  of  appointment  to  a  good  ship 
is  held  out  as  an  inducement  to  join.  It  is  obviously  the  desire  of  the 
Admiralty — indeed,  it  is  so  set  forth  officially — that  young  lieutenants 
should  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  the  college  while  waiting 
their  turn  for  appointment  to  a  ship ;  and  that  special  consideration  will 
be  given  to  these  cases,  in  the  selection  of  lieutenants  for  sea-duty.  This 
very  fact  leads  to  irregularity  in  the  time  of  joining  and  leaving.  It 
often  happens  in  this  way  that  a  half-pay  officer  leaves  the  college  before 
the  close  of  the  academic  year,  in  which  case  he  has  no  examination. 
In  the  session  of  1875-'76,  for  example,  there  were  117  half-pay  officers, 
of  whom  only  37  attended  the  whole  course,  and  only  56  were  examined. 

The  optional  subjects  for  half-pay  officers,  besides  the  lecture-courses, 
are  physics  and  practical  physics,  chemistry  and  practical  chemistry, 
navigation  and  nautical  astronomy,  steam-engineering,  marine  survey- 
ing, military  surveying  and  drawing,  military  history,  permanent  and 
field  fortificaticatiou,  French,  German,  Spanish,  and  freehand  drawing. 
Of  these  electives,  they  are  expected  to  take  at  least  two,  but  the  option 
is  generally  left  to  themselves.  Each  one  makes  out  a  programme  at 
the  beginning,  to  which  he  is  expected  to  adhere.  The  President  is 
directed  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  making  satisfactory  progress,  and 
to  report  accordingly  to  the  Admiralty,  and  removal  may  be  resorted 
to,  if  they  neglect  their  work.  This  has  occasionally  been  done,  with 
beneficial  results. 

The  hours  appointed  in  Group  B  to  organized  study  under  the  differ- 
ent instructors  are  33  a  week,  of  which  16  are  given  to  mathematics,  and 
the  other  17  to  elective  subjects.  These  33  hours  of  instruction  consist 
neither  in  recitation,  nor  in  lecture,  nor  in  practical  exercise,  alone ;  but 
in  a  combination  of  all  three.  In  addition  to  the  regular  class-room 
work,  it  is  expected  that  the  voluntary  students  will  work  about  twelve 
hours  a  week  by  themselves,  making  forty-five  hours  in  all. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  committee  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  workings  of  the  Naval  College,  there  seems  to  have  existed  consider- 
able irregularity  in  the  attendance  of  voluntary  students  at  the  lectures 
and  in  class-rooms.  Full  statistics  on  the  subject,  if  they  could  be  got, 
would  be  both  interesting  and  valuable,  as  showing  the  working  of  the 
system  of  voluntary  attendance.  The  committee,  taking  the  table  of 
attendance  for  a  certain  month  in  1876,  found  that  there  were  104  hours 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.        63 

of  study  during  the  month.  Out  of  these,  the  average  absences  of  the 
class  amounted  to  30  hours,  nearly  one-third,  and  in  the  case  of  one  lieu- 
tenant to  83  hours,  or  about  four-fifths  of  the  whole  time.  The  gunnery 
lieutenants,  as  might  be  expected,  were  far  more  regular,  the  average 
absence  being  about  four  hours  in  the  month  and  the  highest  individual 
case  fifteen  hours. 

A  general  examination  is  held  at  the  end  of  each  session.  It  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  voluntary,  but  all  half-pay  officers  are  expected  to  come 
up  in  mathematics,  and  in  the  electives  which  they  have  taken  from  the 
beginning.  Each  subject  has  a  maximum  number  of  marks,  the  scale 
of  which,  at  the  first  examination  in  1874,  was  as  follows: 

'Mathematics 3,000 

'Physics , 700 

Chemistry - 700 

Steam , 400 

Marine  surveying 300 

'Fortification 400 

Military  surveying  and  drawing 400 

International  law 250 

French 400 

German 350 

Spanish 350 

Freehand  drawing 100 


Aggregate 7,  350 

As  has  been  already  said,  a  half-pay  officer  may  neglect  mathematics 
to  a  certain  extent  and  make  his  numbers  in  other  subjects.  For  exam- 
ple, in  the  examination  referred  to,  the  officer  who  came  out  at  the  head 
of  his  class  got  a  mark  of  3,245,  of  which  1,543  was  for  mathematics, 
and  the  remainder,  1,702,  for  his  optional  subjects,  viz,  physics,  chem- 
istry, steam,  international  law,  French,  and  German,  representing  a  pos- 
sible aggregate  of  2,800;  in  other  words,  he  made  51  per  cent,  of  the 
maximum  in  mathematics  and  61  per  cent,  in  his  electives,  his  percent- 
age on  all  that  he  studied  being  56.  This  does  not  appear  to  be  a  very 
high  standard  for  the  head  man ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  this 
was  the  first  year  of  the  college,  and  that  not  only  are  the  courses  now 
better  organized,  but  the  tendency  will  be  each  year  for  the  voluntary 
students  to  come  better  prepared.  Moreover,  the  officer  in  question 
might  doubtless  have  done  much  better  had  he  confined  himself  to  a 
smaller  range  of  subjects ;  but  the  general  object  of  the  half-pay  stu- 
dents is  not  so  much  to  reach  perfection  in  any  one  branch  of  knowledge 
as  to  obtain  such  a  familiarity  with  several  branches  as  may  be  acquired 
in  nine  months.  Viewed  in  this  light,  and  in  respect  to  the  general  im- 
provement of  the  service,  the  56  per  cent,  of  the  year's  instruction 
obtained  by  this  officer  is  a  positive  gain,  though  not,  perhaps,  as  great 
a  gain  as  might  be  expected,  to  himself  and  to  the  Navy  at  large. 

*  Starred  subjects  are  the  required  subjects  for  gunnery  lieutenants  ;  and  the  maxi- 
mum for  this  class  may  be  said  to  be  the  aggregate  of  the  maxima  assigned  to  the 
three  subjects,  4,100. 


64  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

All  officers  that  reach  a  certain  standard,  provisionally  fixed  in  1874 
at  1,200,  receive  honorary  certificates,  and  their  names  have  the  distin- 
guishing mark  of  (G)  on  the  Navy  List.  This  simple  and  inexpensive 
distinction,  awarded  for  academic  attainments,  has  been  found  to  have 
excellent  results,  and  the  Greenwich  mark  is  valued  by  its  possessors. 
It  will  be  still  more  valued  when  it  conies  to  represent,  as  it  undoubtedly 
will  in  time,  a  higher  standard  of  attainment.  In  1876,  26  certificates 
were  given  among  56  officers  who  presented  themselves  for  examination. 

In  addition  to  the  honorary  certificates,  the  three  highest  also  obtain 
a  substantial  reward  in  the  shape  of  an  annual  supplement  to  their  pay 
for  the  next  three  years,  the  highest  man  receiving  £100,  the  second 
£80,  and  the  third  £30. 

Though  the  best  half- pay  officers  have  the  same  paper  in  mathematics 
as  the  gunnery  lieutenants,  there  are  certain  special  regulations  govern- 
ing the  examination  of  the  latter  which  require  separate  attention.  The 
marks  given  in  the  required  branches  are  as  follows: 

A.  Pure  mathematics :  Marks. 
I.  Arithmetic 100 

II.  Geometry  (Euclid :  first  six  books) 200 

III.  Algebra,  including  binomial  and  exponential  theorems  and  logarithms 300 

IV.  Trigonometry 300 

V.  Co-ordinate  geometry,  including  conic  sections 400 

VI.  Calculus 500 

1,800 

B.  Applied  mathematics : 

I.  Statics 350 

II.  Hydrostatics 350 

III.  Kinematics  and  kinetics 400 

1,100 

C.  Physics 700 

D.  Fortification,  including  military  surveying 500 


Total 4,100 

For  a  first-class  certificate  in  this  class  a  good  knowledge  of  all  the 
subjects  is  required  and  an  aggregate  of  2,500;  for  a  second  class,  a  fair 
knowledge  of  all  the  subjects  except  A.  VI  is  required,  and  an  aggregate 
of  1,200;  that  is  to  say,  about  60  per  cent,  for  a  first  and  the  very  low  limit 
of  30  per  cent,  for  a  second  class.  The  final  certificates  are  based  upon 
those  obtained  in  "theory"  at  Greenwich,  combined  with  those  in  prac- 
tice at  Portsmouth;  but  the  significance  of  a  second  or  third  class  final 
certificate  is  very  much  reduced  by  the  fact  that  one  of  its  elements  may 
be  a  degree  of  proficiency  indicated  by  30  per  cent,  of  the  maximum. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  mathematics,  in  one  shape  or  another,  consti- 
tutes about  three-fourths  of  the  marks  at  the  final  examination  of  gun- 
nery lieutenants ;  hence  their  attention  is  chiefly  given  to  these  branches. 
Besides  the  three  required  studies,  they  may,  if  they  like,  take  other 
courses  that  are  given  at  the  college;  but  their  time  is  so  occupied  that, 
low  as  the  passing  standard  is,  they  have  enough  to  do  without  any 
extras.  Moreover,  the  examination  mark  carries  with  it  such  direct  and 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       65 

important  consequences  as  to  pay,  &c.,  that  all  their  efforts  are  concen- 
trated on  taking  a  first-class  certificate. 

The  course  of  the  gunnery  lieutenants  is  very  thorough,  if  lacking  in 
breadth,  and  in  general  they  form  a  body  of  earnest  students.  Dr.  Hirst 
gives  them  the  high  praise  of  being  the  best  among  all  the  students  he 
has  known  in  colleges  or  universities  j  the  most  satisfactory  and  the 
hardest  workers.* 

2.— PROBATIONARY  LIEUTENANTS  OF  THE  ROYAL  MARINE   ARTIL- 
LERY. 

The  Marine  Artillery  lieutenants  join  the  college  either  on  October  1 
or  after  the  Easter  holidays,  according  as  they  pass  the  examination  for 
admission  in  July  or  December.  The  course  lasts  two  years,  and  two 
examinations  are  held  in  each  year.  Those  who  pass  satisfactorily  at 
the  end  of  the  first  session  after  entry  remain  at  the  college  for  another 
session,  at  the  end  of  which  there  is  another  examination.  On  passing 
this,  they  receive  their  commissions,  seniority  being  fixed  by  order  of 
merit.  Those  who  fail  at  the  first  examination  are  dropped  from  the 
service,  while  those  who  pass  at  the  first,  but  fail  at  the  second,  are 
allowed  to  receive  commissions  in  the  Marine  Light  Infantry. 

Being  younger  than  any  other  class  of  students  and  having  no  pro- 
fessional preparation,  the  probationary  lieutenants  are  placed  in  two 
classes  by  themselves,  and  receive  instruction  separately  in  some 
branches,  and  in  others  in  connection  with  any  class  that  may  be  pursu- 
ing a  parallel  course.  Their  course  consists  of  mathematics,  physics, 
fortification  (field  and  permanent),  military  history,  topographical  draw- 
ing, freehand  drawing,  French,  and  German.  In  mathematics,  the 
first-year  men  cannot  be  classified  with  any  other  students,  and  they 
therefore  receive  special  instruction  for  eleven  hours  a  week  from  the 
assistant  instructor  of  Group  A.  In  fortification  also  they  are  classed 
separately,  and  have  a  preliminary  course  of  lectures  and  drawing  by 
themselves.  In  all  other  subjects,  except  perhaps  French,  where  the 
course  is  very  limited,  they  join  one  or  another  of  the  numerous  classes. 
Thus,  in  second-year  mathematics  and  fortification,  and  in  topographi- 
cal and  freehand  drawing,  they  go  in  with  gunnery  lieutenants  or  half- 
pay  officers ;  in  military  history  with  the  marine  officers,  and  in  physics 
with  the  acting  sub-lieutenants.  Both  classes  have  a  daily  drill  of  one 
hour  under  the  professor  of  fortification — the  only  drill  that  takes  place 
at  the  college. 

3. — ACTING  SUB-LIEUTENANTS   AND    CANDIDATES  FOR  XAVAL  IN- 
STRUCTORS. 

This  group  comprises  acting  sub-lieutenants,  acting  navigating  sub- 
lieutenants, and  candidates  for  naval  iustructorships.  The  acting  navi- 

*The  special  regulations  affecting  officers  preparing  for  torpedo  lieutenants  are 
given  in  Chapter  IX. 

S.  Ex.  51 5 


6  )  NAVAL    EDUCATION — GREAT    BRITAIN. 

ga'.ing  .sub-lieutenants  do  not  call  for  inucli  consideration,  as  the  last  two 
in  the  service  are  now  completing  their  course  at  the  college,  prepara- 
tory to  examination.  The  regulations  governing  their  studies  are  simi- 
lar to  those  for  acting  sub -lieutenants. 

The  course  for  chaplains  and  others  qualifying  as  naval  instructors  is 
intended  to  give  the  professional  training  that  may  be  wanting  in  their 
previous  education.  The  principal  subjects  are  therefore  navigation  and 
nautical  astronomy.  There  are  five  other  required  subjects,  nautical 
surveying,  the  practical  use  of  instruments,  steam,  meteorology,  and 
physics;  and  three  electives,  chemistry,  drawing,  and  advanced  French. 
Instruction  is  given  by  the  instructors  who  teach  acting  sub-lieutenants, 
and  generally  in  the  same  classes,  though,  of  course,  the  candidates  for 
instructorships  reach  a  much  higher  standard. 

The  third  division  of  this  group,  that  of  the  acting  sub-lieutenants,  is 
by  far  the  most  important,  and  their  course  requires  as  much  attention 
as  any  at  Greenwich.  It  represents  a  marked  stage  in  the  career  of 
executive  officers,  and  the  examination  at  its  close  is  one  of  the  three 
great  tests  of  fitness  for  a  lieutenant's  commission ;  the  others  being  the 
seamanship  examination,  which  precedes  it,  and  the  gunnery  examina- 
tion, which  follows  the  course  in  the  Excellent. 

As  soon  as  practicable  after  passing  in  seamanship,  acting  sub-lieu- 
tenants are  ordered  home  to  pass  in  navigation  at  Greenwich.*  Here 
they  have  a  course  of  instruction  lasting  six  months.  As  the  dates  of 
their  arrival  are  uncertain,  no  one  time  in  the  year  can  be  fixed  upon  for 
the  beginning  of  this  course.  To  have  as  little  confusion  as  possible, 
fixed  dates  are  announced  in  each  mouth  at  which  officers  arriving  at 
any  time  in  the  four  weeks  previous  can  join  the  college.  Though  this 
system  of  monthly  commencements  saves  time  for  the  officers,  in  not 
compelling  them  to  wait  for  others  to  begin  with  them,  it  adds  immensely 
to  the  work  of  the  college  by  forming  a  number  of  classes  pursuing  the 
same  course,  but  in  six  different  stages  of  advancement.  Papers,  also, 
must  of  course  be  set  every  month.  It  is  only  adopted  as  a  choice  of 
evils,  the  needs  of  the  service  apparently  preventing  the  return  of  a 
large  number  of  officers  at  or  about  the  same  date,  or  their  useful  em- 
ployment on  shore  in  case  of  early  return,  during  a  certain  period  of 
waiting.t 

*  Formerly  the  gunnery  examination  came  first,  but  in  June,  1878,  a  regulation  was 
adopted  reversing  the  order. 

t  Vice-Admiral  Sir  G.  Hornby,  recently  Commander-in-Cbief  in  the  Mediterranean, 
not  long  ago  remarked  that  the  present  strain  upon  the  service,  in  giving  all  sub- 
lieutenants six  months  at  Greenwich,  was  almost  more  than  the  Admiralty  could  bear, 
unless  shortly  they  saw  that  they  got  some  compensation  from  it  in  an  educational 
point  of  view. 


THE  EOYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       67 

The  course  of  six  months'  instruction  and  the  examination  at  its  close 
comprise  thirteen  subjects,  of  which  the  details  are  as  follows : 

1.  ALGEBRA. — Fundamental  operations,  fractions,  simple  equations,  involution  and 
evolution,  theory  of  indices,  quadratic  surds,  quadratic  equations,  proportion, 
the  three  progressions,  elements  of  the  theory  of  logarithms,  including  the  use 
of  tables. 

'2.  GEOMETRY. — Up  to  the  standard  of  the  sixth  book  of  Euclid's  elements. 

3.  TRIGONOMETRY. — Definitions  and  fundamental  formuhe;   solution  of  plane  and 

spherical  triangles. 

4.  MECHANICS. — Elements  of  statics,  dynamics,  a;id  hydrostatics. 

5.  PHYSICS. — Mechanical  properties  of  liquids  and  gases,  optics,  heat,  and  magnetism ; 

including  construction  and  use  of  the  barometer,  telescope,  microscope,  theodo- 
lite, sextant,  dry  and  wet  bulb  thermometers,  azimuth  compass. 

6.  STEAM-ENGINE. — Heat,  steam,  boilers,  engines,  and  propellers. 

7.  FRENCH. — Writing  from  dictation,   pronunciation,   grammar,   translation  from 

French  to  English,  and  from  English  to  French. 

8.  WINDS  AND  CURRENTS. — Prevailing  winds  and  currents,  their  geographical  limits, 

and  their  changes  at  different  seasons ;  cyclones,  their  characteristics,  localities, 
seasons,  rotation,  and  track ;  relation  of  barometric  pressure  to  prevailing  winds 
and  storms ;  Buys-Ballot's  law ;  leading  theories  of  winds  and  currents ;  rains 
and  rain  seasons. 

9.  PRACTICAL  NAVIGATION. — The  sailings ;  dead  reckoning ;  Mercator's  chart ;  pass- 

age of  bright  stars  over  meridian;  latitude  by  meridian  altitudes,  by  altitude 
of  the  pole  star,  by  altitudes  near  the  meridian,  and  by  double  altitudes ;  longi- 
tude by  chronometer,  and  by  lunar  distance  ;  error  and  rate  of  chronometer  by 
single  altitude,  and  by  equal  altitudes ;  variation  of  compass  by  amplitude,  by 
altitude  azimuth,  and  by  time  azimuth ;  time  of  high  water. 

10.  NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY. — Definitions  and  principles ;  investigation  of  all  processes 

and  formulse ;  explanation  of  all  corrections  used ;  Sumner's  method ;  problems. 

11.  NAUTICAL  SURVEYING. — Use  of  charts;  rating  of  chronometers ;  determination  of 

meridian  distance ;  selection  and  measurement  of  a  base  line ;  determination  of 
latitude,  longitude,  and  true  bearings;  triangulation ;  leveling;  soundings; 
fixing  position;  tide-gauge;  establishment  of  the  port. 

12.  INSTRUMENTS. — Construction  and  use  of  the  marine  barometer,  sextant,  artificial 

horizon,  azimuth  compass,  theodolite,  and  level. 

l;5.  OBSERVATIONS. — Of  the  sun,  for  determining  latitude ;  error  of  chronometer  and 
variation  of  compass.* 

From  the  list  of  subjects  and  text-books  it  might  be  inferred  that  the 
course  and  examination  were  too  severe  to  be  completed  in  six  months. 
Indeed  no  one  familiar  with  education  would  undertake  to  get  a  class 
through  these  thirteen  subjects,  for  the  first  time,  in  six  months,  how- 
ever well  prepared  they  might  be.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  acting 
sub-lieutenants  do  not  go  through  these  subjects  at  Greenwich  for  the 
first  time ;  they  have  been  through  nearly  all  of  them  before  in  the 
Britannia.  The  real  fact  is  that  in  the  Britannia  the  students  have  been 

*  LIST  OF  TEXT-BOOKS. — Hamblin  Smith's  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Plane  Trigonometry, 
Elementary  Statics,  and  Hydrostatics ;  Todhunter's  Spherical  Trigonometry,  Ele- 
ments of  Euclid,  and  Mechanics ;  Ganot's  Natural  Philosophy,  or  B#,lfour  Stewart's 
Elementary  Physics ;  Laughtou's  Nautical  Surveying,  and  Physical  Geography ;  Hull's 
Practical  Nautical  Surveying ;  Jeaus's  or  Raper's  Navigation ;  Evers's  Steam  and  the 
Steam-engine. 


68  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

crammed  up  to  an  extremely  high  and  full  course  (for  boys  of  their 
age),  and  that  from  that  time  till  the  final  examination  at  Greenwich, 
they  are  trying  to  digest  what  they  have  studied,  and  to  convert  it  into 
real  knowledge.  The  second  course  hardly  aims  at  more  than  an  intel- 
ligent review  of  the  studies — as  far  as  there  have  been  any  studies — of 
the  last  seven  years.  As  Sir  Cooper  Key  said  plainly  in  his  testimony  • 
"It  must  be  remembered  that  all  we  (at  Greenwich)  teach,  or  nearly  all 
we  teach  them,  they  ought  to  have  known  before  they  left  the  Britannia. 
The  utmost  that  we  go  up  to  when  they  pass  as  sub-lieutenants  after- 
wards is  very  little  beyond  what  they  are  supposed  to  know  when  they 
leave  the  Britannia;"  and  he  adds:  "The  advantage  of  our  system  is 
that  we  take  care  that  they  know  it."  Certainly,  "  the  end  proposed,'? 
as  the  committee's  report  says,  "  is  a  modest  one."  It  is  merely  to  go 
over,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  studies  that  were  completed  up  to  that  point 
five  years  before. 

The  clearest  proof  of  the  practical  identity  of  the  two  courses  is  to 
be  found  in  the  examination  papers  at  the  close  of  each.  Comparing 
the  final  examination  on  board  the  Britannia  with  the  final  examina- 
tion at  Greenwich,  we  find  that  eight  subjects  are  common  to  both,  viz: 
Algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  physics,  theory  of  navigation,  prac- 
tical navigation,  nautical  surveying,  and  French.  Besides  these,  the 
Britannia  examination  includes  Latin,  and  that  at  Greenwich,  steam, 
mechanics,  and  winds  and  currents — all  three  of  an  elementary  character. 
In  comparing  sets  of  papers  in  the  subjects  common  to  both  examina- 
tions, Dr.  Hirst  says : 

The  algebra  paper  is  virtually  the  same ;  the  difference  is  not  worth  speaking  of. 
The  geometry  is  the  same.  The  trigonometry,  the  practical  part  of  it  at  all  events, 
is  precisely  the  same.  In  spherical  trigonometry  there  is  no  difference  in  character. 
In  practical  navigation  there  is  the  college  sheet.  In  chart  drawing  [surveying]  it 
is  the  same.  In  physics  it  is  slightly  simpler  now  than  it^was  then.  On  the  whole,  I 
should  say  that  the  present  examination  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  simple  as  the  one 
indicated  by  that  paper.* 

The  paper  referred  to  wras  one  of  the  Britannia  papers  of  1873.  Since 
then  the  examination  has  changed  somewhat ;  but,  taking  the  papers 
given  at  both  places  in  July,  1878,  Dr.  Hirst's  remarks  are  almost 
equally  true  of  them.  In  these,  the  Greenwich  questions  in  algebra, 
geometry,  trigonometry,  and  nautical  surveying  cover  a  trifle  more 
ground  than  those  in  the  Britannia;  a  mere  trifle,  hardly  perceptible. 
In  physics  they  are  quite  as  simple,  though  perhaps  they  involved  read- 
ing another  book.  In  French  the  college  paper  is  perceptibly  easier. 
The  chief  difference — and  that  is  very  slight — in  favor  of  the  college  is 
in  navigation,  to  which  the  students  may  be  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
voting themselves  for  the  past  five  years,  and  which  has  double  weight 
at  the  examinations.  It  should  be  added  that  the  similarity  in  the  two 
sets  of  papers  is  not  accidental,  because  both  were  made  out  by  the 
nav.il  instructor  who  acts  as  special  examiner  at  the  college. 

*  Evidence  taken  before  the  Royal  Naval  College  committee,  Question  223. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       69 

There  is  an  examination  of  sub-lieutenants  for  admission,  but  no  one 
is  rejected;  in  fact,  as  the  candidates  know  so  little  at  the  start,  a  reject- 
ing examination  would  tell  very  severely  on  them.  It  would  defeat  the 
object  of  the  course,  as  the  junior  officers  only  come  to  Greenwich  to 
prepare  for  the  final  examination. 

The  hours  of  instruction  are  from  9  to  1  in  the  morning,  and  from  2  to 
4  in  the  afternoon;  except  on  Saturday,  when  there  is  no  afternoon 
study.  In  mathematics  and  navigation,  the  two  important  subjects, 
the  four  naval  instructors  have  general  charge  of  the  classes.  The  first 
two  months  are  occupied  with  algebra  as  far  as  the  binomial  (including 
it  in  the  case  of  a  few  of  the  best  men),  and  geometry  (six  books  of 
Euclid) ;  the  third  and  fourth  with  trigonometry,  mechanics,  dynamics, 
and  hydrostatics;  and  the  last  two  with  navigation  and  nautical  astron- 
omy, under  the  senior  instructor.  The  course  for  the  third  and  fourth 
months  seems  to  be  the  most  difficult  for  the  students.  All  the  pupils 
of  any  one  instructor  attend  in  the  same  room,  though  a  part  of  them 
may  be  a  month  in  advance  of  the  others.  The  normal  limit  of  a  class 
is  twenty -five  men.  The  instructor's  method  is  to  have  his  class  in  his 
room  for  two  or  three  consecutive  hours,  usually  three  in  the  morning 
and  two  in  the  afternoon;  to  spend  the  first  part  of  this  time  in  black- 
board explanation,  doing  problems  and  explaining  them;  and  then  to 
give  out  similar  problems  to  the  class,  who  work  them  out  during  the 
rest  of  the  time.  While  working  on  the  problems  they  are  constantly 
receiving  assistance  and  explanation,  as  they  may  need  it.  In  fact,  the 
system  is  one  of  private  tuition,  applied  to  a  class,  instead  of  an  individ- 
ual. In  theoretical  navigation  a  set  lecture  is  given,  on  which  the  stu- 
dents take  notes.  They  then  go  to  another  room,  where  they  work  out 
the  subjects  of  the  lecture,  under  supervision,  as  before.  These  lectures, 
which  number  about  thirty,  are  frequently  attended  by  half-pay  officers, 
especially  towards  the  end  of  the  course,  when  they  have  worked  up 
their  mathematics.  The  senior  instructor  also  examines  the  sights  taken 
by  the  sub-lieutenants  for  their  final  examination.  The  rest  of  the  time 
is  devoted  to  instruction  in  French  and  nautical  surveying,  and  to  lec- 
tures in  steam  (four  a  week),  physics  (one  a  week),  and  meteorology. 
Most  of  the  lecture  courses  are  supplemented  by  some  personal  instruc- 
tion, and  by  questions  or  problems  given  out  for  answer  and  solution; 
but  sub-lieutenants  have  no  laboratory  courses. 

There  are  no  marks  given  during  the  six  months  of  instruction ;  the 
only  test  is  the  final  examination.  For  this,  the  following  scale  of  marks 
is  adopted: 

Marks. 

1.  Algebra 125 

2.  Geometry 125 

3.  Trigonometry 125 

4.  Mechanics 125 

5.  Physics 100 

6.  Steam-engine 100 

7.  French..  100 


70  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

8.  Winds  and  currents 100 

9.  Practical  navigation 200 

10.  Nautical  astronomy 200 

11.  Nautical  surveying 100 

12.  Instruments 40 

13.  Observations 60 


Total 1500 

Three  certificates  are  given,  requiring  the  following  marks: 

First  class 1,250 

Second  class 1,  000 

Third  class 750 

Moreover,  to  receive  a  first  or  second  class,  1C§  per  cent,  must  be 
obtained  in  each  subject;  and  no  certificate  is  given  if  50  per  cent,  is  not 
obtained  in  No.  13,  observations. 

An  officer  failing  to  obtain  a  certificate  is  re-examined  at  the  end  of 
a  month  (in  practice,  more  nearly  two  months),  but  if  he  fails  on  the 
second  examination  he  is  discharged  from  the  service.  The  failures 
that  resulted  in  rejection  during  the  first  four  years  after  the  foundation 
of  the  college  reached  the  rather  high  figure  of  30.*  They  were  gener- 
ally due,  according  to  Admiral  Fanshawe,  to  the  candidates'  knowing 
nothing  to  begin  with,  and  "  taking  things  very  easily  "  in  the  first  three 
months.  Curiously  enough,  nearly  every  one  of  those  rejected  had 
passed  his  time  at  sea  in  a  ship  with  a  naval  instructor.  This  was  be- 
fore the  half-yearly  examinations  afloat  were  instituted,  or,  at  least, 
before  their  effects  began  to  be  felt,  and  it  is  but  just  to  say  that  they 
are  expected  to  improve  very  much  the  preparation  of  sub-lieutenants. 

It  is  not  a  little  singular  that,  notwithstanding  the  low  standard  of 
the  examination  for  acting  sub-lieutenants,  notwithstanding  the  previous 
study  on  precisely  the  same  ground,  and  the  almost  individual  instruc- 
tion the  pupils  get,  yet  the  practice  of  taking  a  private  tutor  during  the 
whole  six  months  prevails  very  extensively.  About  half  the  candidates 
are  supposed  to  make  use  of  such  assistance,  although  the  college  in- 
structors dislike  and  discourage  it.  Nor  is  it  confined  to  the  lower  men ; 
there  are  cases  of  officers  who  get  a  first  class  who  have  been  coached 
for  three  hours  a  day  during  the  whole  six  months.  The  private  tutors, 
of  whom  there  are  several  at  Greenwich  in  constant  employment,  study 
closely  the  papers  given  each  month,  and  cram  their  pupils  accordingly. 
The  examiner,  on  the  other  hand,  labors  to  vary  his  questions  in  such  a 
way  as  to  defeat  the  object  of  the  tutor  and  to  probe  the  knowledge  of 
the  student,  so  that  a  constant  struggle  is  kept  up  between  crammer 
and  examiner.  It  is  only  in  the  required  course  of  sub-lieutenants  that 
the  practice  of  private  tuition  prevails. 

A  lieutenant's  commission  is  given  in  June  and  December  of  each  year 
to  the  acting  sub-lieutenant  who  has  passed  the  best  examination  dur- 
ing the  preceding  six  months,  provided  he  has  obtained  first-class  cer- 

*A  high  figure,  that  is,  for  officers  wh6  have  already  been  seven  years  in  the 
service. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.        71 

tiflcates  in  seamanship  and  gunnery,  and  lias  reached  a  certain  standard 
in  the  college  examination.  A  prize  of  books  or  instruments  is  given  to 
all  who  obtain  first-class  certificates,  and  the  number  of  each  sub-lieu- 
tenant's certificate  in  seamanship  and  gunnery,  as  Avell  as  in  the  college 
examination,  is  noted  in  the  Navy  List.  The  Beaufort  Testimonial  is  a 
prize,  established  in  1860,  to  be  given  annually  to  the  officer  who  passes 
the  best  examination  for  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  Candidates  are,  how- 
ever, required  to  state  their  intention  of  competing,  upon  joining  the 
college,  and  they  pass  a  special  examination  at  the  close  of  the  course. 
The  examination  includes  advanced  papers  in  mathematics,  nautical 
surveying,  French,  nautical  astronomy,  physics,  and  steam,  and  is  far 
more  difficult  than  the  regular  examination. 

On  the  completion  of  the  course  at  Greenwich,  acting  sub-lieutenants 
are  granted  ten  days'  leave,  at  the  close  of  which  they  join  the  Excellent 
for  a  three  months'  course,  preparatory  to  the  examination  in  gunnery. 

4.— ENGINEERS  AND  CONSTRUCTION  STUDENTS  (GROUP  A). 

This  group  includes — 

Chief  engineers. 

Engineers. 

Assistant  engineers. 

Acting  assistant  engineers. 

Construction  students. 

Private  students. 

The  class  of  chief  engineers  and  engineers  resembles  in  its  formation 
the  classes  of  voluntary  or  half-pay  officers,  in  group  B,  but  in  its  course 
of  instruction,  it  belongs  distinctly  to  group  A.  Three  chief  engineers 
and  fourteen  engineers  (or  assistant  engineers  that  have  not  studied  at 
South  Kensington)  may  be  admitted  annually  on  their  own  application. 
They  pass  a  test  examination  in  elementary  mathematics  at  the  time  of 
admission,  and  they  remain  one  session  at  the  college,  passing  an  ex- 
amination at  its  close.  A  limited  number  are  allowed,  on  recommenda- 
tion of  the  examiners,  to  remain  a  second  year  for  study.  The  courses, 
which  can  best  be  described  in  connection  with  the  junior  students,  are 
opened  to  the  older  officers  chiefly  because  they  lack  the  advantage  of  a 
systematic  training,  the  South  Kensington  school  having  been  opened 
only  in  1864. 

Acting  assistant  engineers  have  a  required  course  at  the  college  after 
their  six  years'  course  as  engineer  students  in  the  dockyards.  This 
course  at  the  college,  which  lasts  one  year,  corresponds  to  the  required 
course  of  acting  sub-lieutenants,  and  like  that,  it  is  closed  by  an  exami- 
nation, for  confirmation  of  an  acting  appointment.  On  passing  the  ex- 
amination, the  students  are  commissioned  as  assistant  engineers,  and 
the  date  of  their  commission  depends  on  the  class  of  their  examina- 
tion certificate.  Those  who  obtain  a  first  class  receive  commissions 


72  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

dated  on  the  same  day  as  their  acting  appointment ;  those  who  take  a 
second  class  hare  commissions  dated  six  months  later ;  while  the  com- 
missions of  the  third  class  are  dated  on  the  day  of  their  discharge  from 
the  college.  It  is  at  the  final  examination,  as  has  been  already  stated, 
that  the  two  best  men  in  each  year  are  selected  to  be  retained  at  the 
college  for  further  instruction. 

The  construction  students  are  obtained  from  the  dockyard  appren 
tices,  by  the  process  already  described — a  competitive  examination,  at 
the  end  of  a  five-years'  course  of  practical  and  theoretical  training  in 
the  dockyards.  As  only  three  are  selected  annually  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  competitors,  the  classes  consist  of  the  very  best  material.  The 
course  at  Greenwich  lasts  three  years,  in  the  first  of  which  the  construc- 
tion students  are  classed  with  the  large  body  of  acting  assistant  engi- 
neers,* and  in  the  second  and  third,  with  the  small  selected  classes  of 
assistant  engineers  pursuing  an  advanced  course. 

In  the  same  group,  and  undergoing  the  same  course,  are  the  private 
students,  who  pass  examinations  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  their 
studies,  and  have  the  same  certificates  of  proficiency  as  the  Admiralty 
students.  By  an  exceedingly  liberal  provision,  similar  to  that  which 
opens  the  doors  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  to  Japanese 
youths,  foreigners  as  well  as  Englishmen,  and  even  foreign  officers,  are 
admitted  to  the  benefits  of  the  college  course.  In  this  way  there  have 
been  students  from  among  the  naval  officers  of  Kussia,  Italy,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  other  states,  who  have  gone  through  the  course,  and  ob- 
tained their  final  certificated 

The  group  of  students  comprising  the  foregoing  classes  are  known 
collectively  as  "  students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering." 
Leaving  out  the  acting  assistant  engineers,  who  are  pursuing  their  re- 
quired course  before  promotion,  it  is  a  group  small  in  numbers,  but  it  is 
among  the  most  important  at  the  college,  as  it  receives  the  highest  pro- 
fessional and  scientific  instruction  given  there,  and  from  it  will  be  re- 
cruited, in  future,  all  the  designers  and  constructors  of  ships  and  engines 
in  the  Navy. 

The  courses  for  the  two  divisions  of  students  (construction  and  engi- 
neering) are  identical  in  theoretical  subjects,  but  differ  in  the  profes- 
sional branches.  The  common  course  includes  mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  and  mechanics.  All  these  courses  are  of  a  very  high  charac- 
ter, a  fact  which  is  made  possible  by  the  previous  training  that  all  the 
Admiralty  students  have  received  in  the  dockyard  schools.  The  course 
in  mathematics  is  equal  to  the  highest  university  course  in  England.  In 

*  That  is  to  say,  with  the  first  division,  comprising  only  the  best  men.  The  second 
division  of  acting  assistant  engineers  takes  a  much  less  extensive  course  in  mathe- 
matics than  the  higher. 

tin  view  of  the  possibility — a  possibility  that  is  now,  in  two  cases,  at  least,  about 
to  be  realized — that  it  may  be  deemed  wise  to  obtain  the  unequaled  advantages  of 
this  course  for  American  students,  a  copy  of  the  Admiralty  circular  is  given  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, Note  F. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       73 

physics  and  chemistry,  the  course  includes  a  long  and  thorough  train- 
ing, under  the  ablest  professors,  in  laboratories  that  are  among  the  best 
appointed  in  the  world.  The  same  is  true  of  applied  mechanics,  the  in- 
structor in  which,  Professor  Cotterill,  is  the  highest  authority  on  the 
subject  that  England  has  had  since  the  death  of  Eankine.  In  the  pro- 
fessional branches,  nine  hours  a  week  are  devoted  to  the  design  of  ships 
and  engines.  Problems  are  proposed  in  the  form  in  which  they  will 
actually  arise  when  the  pupil  enters  the  service,  and  designs  are  made 
from  which  a  ship  or  engine  could  be  built.  Some  of  these  designs  con- 
tain valuable  original  features,  and  they  will  always  be  of  use  to  the 
authors  during  their  future  career.  Finally,  as  the  instructors  are  men 
holding  positions  in  the  construction  branch  of  the  Navy,  they  are  en- 
abled to  give  their  students  the  very  latest  problems — those  on  which 
they  themselves  are  engaged. 

In  general,  the  students  in  this  group  are  separated  from  those  of  the 
executive  branch,  but  they  attend  the  general  lectures  in  physics  and 
chemistry,  and  some  of  their  special  courses  are  open  to  half-pay  officers. 
The  general  arrangement  of  instruction  is  to  give  the  morning  to  theo- 
retical or  scientific  study,  and  the  afternoon  to  practical  or  professional 
work.  The  first  three  morning  hours  are  devoted  to  mathematics  and 
applied  mechanics,  taken  on  alternate  days.  The  fourth  hour  is  divided 
for  different  days  among  chemistry,  physics,  and  French.  In  the  same 
way  the  afternoons  are  given  on  certain  days  to  laboratory  work,  both 
in  physics  and  chemistry,  and  on  the  other  days  to  naval  architecture 
and  ship-building  by  the  construction  students,  and  to  marine  engineer- 
ing and  engine-drawing  by  the  engineers.  There  are  also  additional 
hours  in  French,  and  a  special  course  in  descriptive  geometry,  for  first- 
year  students ;  and  some  of  the  lectures  that  are  optional  for  all  officers 
are  pre-eminently  of  importance  for  this  class.  The  most  noticeable  are 
those  on  the  safety  of  ships,  the  behavior  of  ships  at  sea,  the  structural 
arrangements  of  modern  war-ships,  as  illustrated  by  models  in  the  mu- 
seum, and  the  tonnage  and  propulsion  of  ships. 

The  course  in  pure  mathematics  is  in  charge  of  one  of  the  professors, 
whose  exclusive  attention  is  given  to  this  group  of  students.  The  method 
of  instruction  is  similar  to  that  prevailing  in  other  classes  and  already 
described.  That  a  point  so  much  higher  is  reached,  is  due  to  various 
causes,  but  chiefly  to  the  careful  selection  of  students,  and  to  their  pre- 
vious thorough  course  in  the  dockyard  schools,  a  course  including  descrip- 
tive geometry,  calculus,  and  mechanics.  Moreover,  the  students  are  all  of 
mature  age.  They  can  perceive  the  direct  professional  bearing  of  their 
theoretical  studies,  and  they  give  every  morning  for  three  years  to  in- 
struction in  either  mathematics  or  applied  mechanics,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  considerable  time  outside  devoted  to  study.  In  the  first  year  a  di- 
vision is  made,  so  that  the  lower  men  may  have  studies  suited  to  their 
capacity  and  attainments,  and  may  not  impede  the  progress  of  the  best. 
The  first  division  includes  the  construction  students  and  the  ablest  of 


74  NAVAL    EDUCATION— GREAT    BRITAIN. 

the  acting  assistant  engineers ;  the  second,  the  rest  of  the  acting  assist- 
ants, who  have  not  been  diligent  at  the  dock-yards,  but  who  have  just 
passed  the  examination.  It  also  includes  the  voluntary  engineer  officers, 
who  are  older  men,  and  who  have  had  few  opportunities  of  study.  The 
foreigners  are  arranged  in  one  division  or  the  other,  according  to  their 
advancement.  The  second  division  has  a  moderate  course,  intended 
chiefly  to  broaden  and  deepen  the  knowledge  acquired  in  the  dockyard 
schools.  For  example,  this  division  does  not  read  calculus.  After  the 
first  year,  there  is  no  necessity  for  a  subdivision  of  classes.  The  chosen 
students  are  nearly  on  a  level  of  attainment,  and,  as  there  are  only  five 
of  them  in  each  of  the  last  two  years,  nothing  could  possibly  be  gained 
by  classification. 

The  course  in  construction  deserves  particular  attention.  On  this 
subject,  the  construction  students  have  two  instructors:  an  instructor 
in  ship-building,  including  ship-drawing  and  laying  off,  and  an  instructor 
in  naval  architecture.  Both  these  officers  belong  to  the  staff  of  the 
construction  department  of  the  Admiralty;  the  instructor  in  naval 
architecture  being  Mr.  W.  H.  White,  an  assistant  constructor,  and  the 
author  of  a  well-known  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  account  of  the 
details  of  the  course  in  his  department  is  based  on  his  own  statements. 

The  instructor  in  ship-building  begins  his  course  when  the  students 
enter  the  college,  and  employs  them  two  or  three  afternoons  in  the 
week,  during  the  whole  of  the  first  year  and  about  a  third  of  the  sec- 
ond. During  that  time  the  average  amount  of  work  performed  in- 
cludes the  preparation  of  one  or  two  sheer-drawings  and  midship-sec- 
tions, in  order  that  the  students  may  acquire  facility  as  draughtsmen, 
and  the  laying  off  of  the  fore  and  after  bodies  for  a  wooden  ship,  of  all 
which  the  Admiralty  students  have  already  obtained  considerable  knowl- 
edge in  the  dockyards.  Towards  the  close  of  each  year  the  special 
course  of  lectures  on  ship-building  is  given  for  the  benefit  of  executive 
and  engineer  officers,  as  well  as  construction  students. 

The  course  under  the  instructor  in  naval  architecture  is  more  exten- 
sive, and  continues  through  the  whole  three  years.  In  the  first  year  at- 
tention is  given  exclusively  to  ship  calculations  during  one  or  two  after- 
noons of  each  week.  Each  student  works  independently,  from  the  draw- 
ings of  an  actual  ship,  and  is  taught  to  perform,  and  in  nearly  all  cases 
does  perform,  the  folio  wing  calculations: 

1.  Proofs  and  applications  of  rules  for  finding  the  areas  and  the  position  of  the  center 

of  gravity  of  plane  curves,  including  Simpson's  rules,  the  method  of  polar  co- 
ordinates, and  the  geometric  process. 

2.  Proofs  and  applications  of  rules  for  calculating  the  displacement  of  ships  and  po- 

sition of  the  center  of  buoyancy,  including  the  ordinary  method  by  double  ap- 
plication of  Simpson's  first  rule,  Dr.  Woolley's  rule,  and  the  geometric  process. 

3.  Construction  and  nse  of  curves  of  displacement,  tons   per  inch  immersion,  and 

area  of  immersed  midship  section. 

4.  Proofs  and  applications  of  rules  for  calculating  the  position  of  the  metaceuters  for 

transverse  and  longitudinal  inclinations. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.       75 

5.  Construction  and  use  of  metacentric  diagrams. 

6.  Explanations  and  applications  of  rules  for  tonnage  measurements,  including  build- 

er's old  measurement,  register  tonnage,  freight  tonnage. 

7.  Graphic  representations  of  the  longitudinal  distribution  of  the  weight  and  buoy- 

ancy in  ships  floating  in  still  water,  together  with  the  construction  of  curves  of 
loads,  shearing  forces,  and  bending  moments. 

The  work  of  the  first  session  may  be  said,  therefore,  to  comprehend 
all  the  ordinary  calculations  made  for  a  ship,  with  some  special  methods 
that  are  useful  as  checks  and  aids  in  ship  designing.  As  a  rule,  the 
students  are  capable,  in  their  subsequent  work,  not  merely  of  applying 
the  methods  learnt  in  the  first  year,  but  of  selecting  the  process  best 
adapted  to  economize  labor,  and  to  secure  accuracy  in  practice. 

In  the  first  three  months  of  the  second  year,  while  the  students  are 
partly  occupied  under  the  instructor  in  ship-building,  they  continue  their 
work  on  ship-calculations,  and  are  taught  how  to  perform  the  following 
operations : 

1.  Calculations  for  statical  stability  and  construction  of  curves  of 
stability. 

2.  Calculations  for  dynamical  stability  by  Moseley's  formula. 

3.  Calculations  for  and  construction  of  the-  loci  of  the  center  of  buoy- 
ancy, metacenter,  and  center  of  flotation  of  ships  for  all  transverse  in- 
clinations, under  certain  assumed  conditions. 

The  student  who  has  learned  to  perform  these  three  calculations 
ought  to  have  no  further  difficulty  in  dealing  with  any  calculation  con- 
nected with  the  buoyancy  and  stability  of  ships. 

At  the  close  of  this  course  of  ship-calculation  the  work  of  ship-design 
is  begun,  and  continued  through  the  rest  of  the  second  and  the  whole  of 
the  third  year,  occupying  two  or  three  afternoons  a  week.  In  general, 
arrangement  is  made  for  the  actual  performance  of  the  work  by  each 
student,  but  in  the  case  of  ship-design  the  amount  of  work  is  generally 
too  great  for  single  students  to  work  out  a  design,  and  it  is  customary 
for  them  to  be  grouped  by  twos  and  threes,  care  being  taken  that  each 
has  a  share  in  all  the  important  parts  of  the  work.  This  includes  the 
preparation  of  the  drawings  and  calculations  connected  with  the  design 
of  a  ship  of  some  selected  type.  The  character  and  extent  of  the  work 
done  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  outline  of  what  would  ordina- 
rily be  done  in  designing  an  iron-clad  ship : 

1.  Preliminary  estimate  of  dimensions  and  displacement  required  to  fulfill  the  desired 

conditions  as  to  draught,  trim,  armor,  armament,  speed,  and  equipment,  &c., 
as  well  as  to  provide  sufficient  stability. 

2.  Preparation  of  sheer-drawing,  midship  section,  outline  specification  for  scantlings, 

plans  of  decks,  battery,  &c.,  required  for  making  an  estimate  of  the  weights  of 
hull,  armor,  &c. 

3.  Calculations  of  displacement,  and  positions  of  the  center  of  buoyancy  and  meta- 

centers. 

4.  Detailed  calculations  for  the  weight  of  hull,  armored  and  fitted,  together  with  the 

position  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  same  in  height  and  length. 
f>.  Detailed  estimates  of  weights  of  equipment  and  position  of  their  center    of 
gravity. 


76  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

6.  Combination  of  the  results  of  4  arid  5  to  determine  the  weight  and  position  of  the 

center  of  gravity  of  the  completed  ship.  The  comparison  of  these  results  with 
those  obtained  in  3  shows  whether  the  new  design  is  successful  as  regards 
draught,  trim,  and  stiffness,  or  whether  any  corrections  are  necessary  in  the 
form  or  stowage.  Having  made  these  corrections,  the  design  passes  out  of  the 
preliminary  stage,  and  only  its  details  require  to  be  worked  out. 

7.  Preparation  of  outline  profile  and  plans  of  decks  and  hold,  showing  the  main  fea- 

tures of  the  stowage  throughout  the  ship. 

8.  Preparation  of  sail  draught,  with  calculations  for  area  aud  center  of  effort  of 

plain  sail,  and  power  to  carry  sail. 

9.  Calculations  for  and  construction  of  curves  of  displacement,  tons  per  inch,  and 

immersed  midship  section ;  also  for  the  metacentric  diagram. 

10.  Calculations  for  statical  stability,  construction  of  curve  of  stability,  estimate  of 
.      dynamical  stability.  . 

11.  Calculations  for  speed  under  steam. 

12.  Calculations  for  longitudinal  bending  momsuts  in  still  water  and  among  waves, 

including  the  construction  of  curves  of  weight,  buoyancy,  loads,  shearing 
forces,  and  bending  moments. 

13.  Construction  of  equivalent  girders,  an;l  estimates  of  longitudinal  strains  on  the 

structure. 

A  student  who  lias  passed  through  this  course  ought  to  be  thoroughly 
competent  t»  undertake  the  design  of  any  class  of  ship  for  which  the 
fundamental  conditions  are  furnished. 

In  the  third  year  students  also  attend  a  special  course  of  about  35 
lectures  on  the  stability  and  oscillations  of  ships,  delivered  by  Mr. 
White.  By  that  time  they  have  advanced  far  enough  in  mathematics 
to  take  up  the  general  theorems  of  stability,  and  the  theory  of  the  os- 
cillations of  ships ;  and  one  morning  in  each  week  is  devoted  to  these 
subjects.  The  extent  of  this  course  is  shown  by  the  following  abstract : 

SYLLABUS   OF   LECTURES   OX  THE   STABILITY  AND   OSCILLATIONS   OF   SHIPS. 

I.— STATICAL  STABILITY  OF  SHIPS. 

1.  General  theorems  of  Dupin,  with  extensions  and  particular  applications  to. ships. 

2.  Metacentric  methods  of  estimating  initial  stability,  "metacentric  heights"  for  va- 

rious classes  of  ships,  with  results  of  experience  as  to  the  amount  of  stiffness 
desirable. 

3.  Applications  of  the  metacentric  method,  including :    Inclining  experiments  to  deter- 

mine the  vertical  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  ships.  Variations  in  stability 
due  to  addition  or  removal  of  weights.  Estimates  for  changes  of  trim  of  ships 
produced  by  moving  weights,  or  adding  or  removing  weights.  Efficiency  of  va- 
rious methods  of  water-tight  subdivision  in  preserving  the  stability  of  ships  when 
compartments  are  bilged.  Stability  of  ships  aground  and  partially  water-borne. 
Estimates  of  power  to  carry  sail. 

4.  Stability  at  finite  angles  of  inclination,  with  details  of  the  various  methods  of 

calculation  that  have  been  proposed  by  Atwood,  Reade,  and  Barnes.  Calcula- 
tions for  and  construction  of  curves  of  stability.  Examples  of  the  forms  of  such 
curves  for  typical  ships.  Influence  of  freeboard,  beam,  draught,  and  vertical 
position  of  the  center  of  gravity  upon  the  forms  of  curves  of  stability. 

II. — DYNAMICAL  STABILITY. 

1.  Moseley's  formula  and  other  expressions  for  dynamical  stability.  Estimates  of  dy- 
namical stability  by  direct  calculation,  or  from  curves  of  stability.  Connection 
of  dynamical  stability  with  the  safety  of  ships  acted  upon  by  suddenly-applied 
forces,  such  as  gusts  or  squalls  of  wind.  Reserve  of  dynamical  stability. 


THE  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE  AT  GREENWICH.        77 

III. — OSCILLATIONS  OF  SHIPS. 

1.  Unresisted  rolling  in  still  water. 

2.  Rolling  in  still  water,  with  the  effect  of  resistance  included. 

3.  Still-water  rolling  experiments,  their  conduct,  and  the  construction  and  analysis  of 

curves  of  extinction. 

4.  Dipping  oscillations  in  still  water. 

5.  Rolling  among  waves — treated  mainly  in  accordance  with  the  investigations  of 

Mr.  Froude,  with  the  effect  of  resistance  neglected  and  included.         • 

6.  Principal  deductions  from  the  theory  of  rolling,  illustrated  by  recorded  observations 

of  the  behavior  of  ships. 

7.  Pitching  oscillations. 

8.  Heaving  and  yawing. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  professor  of  applied  mechanics,  Mr.  Cotterill, 
gives  a  course  of  lectures  each  session  on  the  trochoidal-wave  theory 
and  the  propulsion  of  ships,  including  the  stream-line  theory  of  resist- 
ance. 

It  is  not  supposed  that  the  college  will  replace  the  necessity  of  experience 
in  designing  ships  or  supply  the  facility  and  information  only  gained  by 
long  and  extensive  practice ;  but  it  is  intended  that  it  shall  give  a  good 
grounding  in  the  principles  of  design,  and  enable  the  student  to  proceed 
intelligently  in  whatever  direction  his  after  work  may  lead  him.  Evi- 
dence of  the  thoroughness  of  the  training  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
many  graduates  of  the  course  are  at  once  employed  in  the  construction 
department  of  the  Admiralty ;  and  both  Mr.  E.  J.  Eeed,  the  late  chief 
constructor,  and  Mr.  Barnaby,  who  at  present  occupies  that  position, 
have  borne  testimony  to  the  useful  work  that  they  have  done. 

During  the  summer,  which  the  other  students  spend  in  vacation,  the 
young  constructors  and  constructing  engineers  go  for  three  months 
to  the  dockyards,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  to  the  Steam  Eeserves, 
where  they  put  in  practice  their  theoretical  knowledge,  renew  their  skill 
in  practical  work,  attend  trials  of  new  and  repaired  machinery,  and,  in 
general,  gain  additional  practical  experience,  to  be  turned  to  account  in 
the  rest  of  their  course,  and  ultimately  in  their  profession. 

At  the  close  of  the  course  certificates  of  three  classes  are  given  for 
proficiency,  as  shown  at  the  final  examination ;  and  it  has  been  said  by 
one  of  those  best  capable  of  judging  in  England,  that  the  first-class 
certificate  in  naval  architecture  or  marine  engineering,  given  at  Green- 
wich, is  the  highest  class  of  certificate  of  the  kind  given  in  England,  and 
represents  the  highest  scientific  attainments,  and  that  a  man's  fortune 
may  be  said  to  be  made  who  takes  it. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


THE  GUNNERY-SHIP  EXCELLENT. 

The  establishment  to  which  the  name  of  the  Excellent  is  applied  is 
the  third  great  institution  for  educational  purposes  in  the  English  Navy, 
and  is,  in  its  way,  quite  as  important  as  either  of  the  others.  But  it  dif- 
fers from  them  in  one  respect,  that  it  is  devoted  as  much  to  the  training  of 
seamen  and  petty  and  warrant  officers  as  to  that  of  commissioned  officers. 
When  it  is  considered  that  it  has  resources  equal  to  the  training  of  at 
least  100  officers  and  over  1,000  men,  at  a  time ;  that  there  are  usually 
more  than  this  number  of  men  actually  there,  and  that  it  is  the  only  place 
where  systematic  instruction  is  given  to  officers  at  least,  in  this  branch,* 
it  will  be  seen  of  what  great  consequence  it  is  in  the  naval  system. 

The  great  work  of  the  Excellent  is  instruction  ift  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical gunnery.  There  is  also  a  school  course  in  mathematics  for  gun- 
ners and  gunnery  instructors  (petty  officers  or  seamen),  but  the  main 
work  of  the  establishment  is  with  gunnery. 

In  this  branch  there  are  courses  carefully  arranged  for  five  different 
classes  of  officers.  The  officers  qualifying  for  gunnery-lieutenants  take 
the  longest  and  fullest  course,  lasting  about  six  months.  The  other 
courses,  each  of  three  months,  but  differently  divided,  are  taken  by 
officers  of  the  Marine  Artillery,  sub-lieutenants  completing  their  course 
and  examination  for  promotion,  and  voluntary,  or,  as  they  are  com- 
monly called,  "short-course"  lieutenants.  The  fifth  and  last  course, 
only  organized  last  year,  is  for  captains  and  commanders.  It  extends 
over  twenty  days,  and  is  purely  voluntary,  like  that  of  the  short-course 
lieutenants,  and  like  the  courses  for  the  same  grades  of  officers  at 
Greenwich.  The  division  of  time  is  briefly  sliown  in  the  following 
table,  the  subjects  being  taken  up  in  the  order  named. 

COURSES   OF   INSTRUCTION   ON   BOARD   THE   EXCELLENT. 

Days  of  instruction. 


Subjects. 

Captains  and 
commanders. 

Gunnery  lieu- 
tenants. 

Short-course 
lieutenants. 

1 
|| 

1 

Sub-lieuten- 
ants. 

Heavy  gun  

5 

28 

20 

20 

15 

Field  exercise  

5 

18 

18 

14 

Ammunition  

10 

10 

10 

10 

Truck  gun  

5 

5 

5 

5 

2 

10 

Cutlass  and  pistol  

8 

3 

3 

Turret  

2 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Field  gun...  

1 

g 

5 

6 

Diving  

1 

Theoretical,  including  examination  of  guns  

JO 

10 

Final  

10 

10 

3 

Examination  .  . 

7 

3 

5 

Total  

20 

111 

65 

62 

65 

*The  Cambridge,  stationed  at  Devonport,  is  also  a  gunnery  rtiip,  but  is  exclusively  for  the  training 
of  men. 


THE  GUNXERY-SHIP  EXCELLENT.  79 

To  carry  on  these  courses,  as  well  as  those  for  the  instruction  of  gun- 
ners, gunnery  instructors,  seamen-gunners,  and  men  qualifying  for  one 
of  these  positions,  the  Excellent  has  a  staff  of  officers  composed  of  a 
captain,  commander,  six  gunnery  lieutenants,  a  naval  instructor,  and 
sixteen  gunners,  besides  the  usual  staff  officers.  There  are  also  a  num- 
ber of  gunnery  instructors.  Besides  their  duties  with  the  men,  the 
gunners  instruct  the  officers  qualifying  for  gunnery  lieutenants,  and  the 
gunnery  instructors  instruct  the  sub-lieutenants  and  short-course  lieu- 
tenants. The  officers  take  theoretical  instruction,  battalion  drill,  and 
exercise  at  quarters.  It  will  be  noticed  that  by  this  arrangement  much 
practical  instruction  is  regularly  given  by  petty  or  warrant  officers  to  com- 
missioned officers.  This  system,  which  might  at  first  sight  be  thought 
open  to  objections,  is  found  to  work  exceedingly  well  on  board  the  Ex- 
cellent and  to  occasion  no  difficulty.  The  gunners,  gunnery  instructors, 
and  seamen-gunners  of  the  English  navy  are  highly  trained  men,  of 
great  intelligence,  who  have  won  their  positions  after  one,  two,  three, 
or  perhaps  four  courses  of  thorough  training,  with  severe  examinations; 
and  with  rare  exceptions,  they  are  fully  equal  to  the  work  they  are  called 
upon  to  do  in  the  instruction  of  their  superiors. 

The  materiel  of  the  establishment  consists  of  two  old  ships  of- the- 
line,  the  Excellent  and  the  Calcutta,  lying  in  the  stream  off'  Portsmouth 
dockyard.  There  are  also  two  screw  gunboats  attached  to  the  Excel- 
lent, the  Comet  and  the  Skylark,  and  an  old  mortar-boat  used  in  the 
Crimean  war,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  a  rolling-motion  boat.  The 
Glatton,  one  of  the  powerful  armor-plated  coast-defense  turret  ships,  is 
attached  as  a  tender  to  the  Excellent,  and  is  used  for  turret  instruction. 
The  Lord  Clyde,  one  of  the  older  18-gun  wooden  armored  ships,  is  now 
being  fitted  out  to  be  used  as  a  drill  ship.  As  to  guns,  the  Excellent 
has  on  her  lower  deck  ten  100-pounder.  smooth  -bores,  and  on  her  upper, 
one  90  cwt.  7-inch  revolving  gun.  The  Calcutta's  guns  are  two  9-inch , 
two  8-inch,  three  7-inch  6|  ton,  and  one  7-inch  4£  ton.  The  Glattoa 
carries  two  25-ton  guns  in  her  turret.  The  Comet  has  one  18-ton  gun, 
and  the  Skylark  two  64s  and  one  40-pounder.  The  Lord  Clyde  has  a 
broadside  battery  of  eighteen  6  J-ton  guns.  The  rolling-motion  boat  has 
two  9-pounders,  and  there  are  also  for  practice  a  launch,  armed  with  one 
9-pouuder,  and  a  cutter,  with  a  7-pounder  and  a  Gatliug  (.45  caliber) . 
The  pile-battery  consists  of  two  9-pounders,  and  the  battery  on  the  island, 
used  for  field-gun  exercise,  of  six  9-pouuders  and  a  Gatling  (.65  caliber). 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  comprises  nearly  every  description  of  gun  in  use 
in  the  English  service,  a  fact  of  the  greatest  importance  in  estimating 
the  efficiency  of  the  institution. 

Before  going  into  the  details  of  the  various  courses,  it  should  be  stated 
that  they  are  largely  pursued  in  common  with  the  seamen  and  petty 
officers  of  various  grades,  reviewing  or  qualifying  for  higher  ratings. 
In  battalion  drill  the  officer-students  are  only  company  or  non-commis- 
sioned officers ;  but  in  squad  and  great  gun  drills  they  fall  in  and  work 


80  NAVAL    EDUCATION — GREAT    BRITAIN. 

with  the  men.  There  is  no  permanent  battalion  organization ;  in  fact, 
owing  to  the  frequency  with  which  separate  classes  join,  and  the  irreg- 
ularity with  which  officers  and  men  are  attached  and  detached,  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  to  have  such  an  organization,  and  it  would  not  be 
of  any  great  advantage.  Battalion  drill  and  landing  usually  take  place 
on  Thursdays,  and  field-gun  exercise  on  Friday  mornings,  with  quar- 
ters in  the  afternoon.  Theoretical  instruction  is  given  in  lectures  on 
Saturdays,  and  in  some  branches  by  a  lesson  lasting  a  quarter  of  an 
hour  before  and  after  each  drill.  Moreover,  each  drill  and  exercise  in- 
volve a  certain  amount  of  theoretical  instruction.  The  rest  must  be 
done  by  the  students  themselves,  with  the  help  of  their  text-books,  and 
such  explanation  as  they  may  receive  from  time  to  time  from  the  officers 
of  the  staft'. 

The  text-books  used  in  the  Excellent  are  mostly  official  publications 
of  very  recent  date,  and  are  all  works  of  the  highest  character,  and  spe- 
cially adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  course.  They  comprise  the  Gunnery 
Manual ;  the  Official  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Manufacture  of 
Ordnance  in  the  British  service,  1877 ;  Wood's  Notes  on  Naval  Guns ; 
Motion  of  Eifled  Projectiles  j  Britton's  Beview  of  the  Bine  System ;  Of- 
ficial Treatises  on  Ammunition  and  on  Military  Carriages ;  Manufacture 
of  Gunpowder  at  Waltham  Abbey ;  Bine  and  Field  Exercises  and  Mus- 
ketry Instructions,  1877. 

In  general,  there  are  two  courses  pursued  on  board  the  Excellent, 
known  as  the  long  course  and  the  short  course ;  the  first  of  about  six 
months,  and  the  second  of  three  months.  These  two  courses  may  be 
taken  as  types  of  the  work  done  in  all  the  specific  courses  given  to  offi- 
cers and  men,  all  being  modifications  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  es- 
tablished systems.  The  long  course  answers  pretty  exactly  for  the  gun- 
nery lieutenants  (i.  e.,  officers  qualifying  as  such),  and  the  short  course 
for  the  voluntary  lieutenants  and  the  sub-lieutenants,  the  distribution  of 
time  for  each  being  that  previously  given  in  the  table.*  In  these  courses 
each  day's  work  is  marked  out,  the  exercise  taking  the  best  part  of  each 
morning  and  afternoon  except  Saturday. 

The  details  of  the  courses  are  given  below : 

1. — LONG  COURSE. 

1. — HEAVY  GUN. 

1st  to  4th  day. — Formerly  a  specific  exercise  was  assigned  to  each  of  the  first  four 
days.  For  example,  the  first  morning  was  wholly  given  to  casting  loose  and  spong- 
ing, and  the  afternoon  to  sponging  and  loading  different  guns ;  the  second  day  was 
given  to  running  in  and  out  different  guns,  using  high  elevations,  and  so  on.  Now, 
however,  instead  of  spending  a  whole  day  at  one  exercise,  the  exercises  are  varied 
through  the  whole  preliminary  drill  in  the  Manual  of  Gunnery. 

oth  day. — Clearing  for  action,  independent  firing,  and  training  for  loading. 

bth  day. — Revolving  gun. 

7th  day. — Electric  firing. 

*Pa<re78. 


THE    GUNNERY    SHIP    EXCELLENT.  81 

8th  to  llth  day. — Remainder  of  the  firings,  viz,  from  platform,  ship  (100-pounder), 
rolling-motion  boat,  and  gun-boat,  according  to  the  state  of  the  tide. 
12th  and  13th  days. — Transporting,  dismounting,  gear  of  carriage  and  slide. 
14th  day. — Lowering  ports,  chalking  drums,  and  down  ports. 
15th  day. — Shifting  breechings,  supply,  and  spare  stores. 
16th  day. — Working  guns  in  a  seaway  ;  preparing  for  ramming. 
17th  day. — Signals. 
18th  day. — Diminished  crews. 
19thand2Qth  days. — Examination. 

Each  day's  drill  begins  and  ends  with  a  lesson  lasting  a  quarter  of  an 
hour.  The  lessons  are  arranged  somewhat  as  follows:  (1)  Parts  of  the 
guns,  carriages,  and  slides ;  (2)  sights,  wood-scales,  &c. ;  (3)  weight  of 
charges,  bursters,  &c. ;  (4)  weight  of  projectiles  5  (5)  weight  and  dimen- 
sions of  guns.  These  subjects  are  taken  in  the  same  order  during  each 
five  days  of  the  heavy  gun  course,  the  student  advancing  at  each  lesson. 
Instruction  in  the  Manual  is  given  for  two  hours,  each  morning  and 

afternoon. 

2. — FIELD  EXERCISE. 

IsttoSdday. — 9-10.30.  Manual  and  firing  exercises.  10.40-11.45.  Squad  drill.  Same 
in  the  afternoon. 

4<A  to  6th  day. — Same  as  first  three  days,  except  that  squad  skirmishing  is  substi- 
tuted for  squad  drill  in  the  afternoon. 

7th  to  17th  day.—9t-W.  Drill  each  other.  10-10.30.  Miscellaneous."  10.40-11.45. 
Companies.  1.30-2.40.  Company  skirmishing. 

18th  day. — Examination. 

3.—  AMMUNITION. 

1  day. — Equipment  of  boats  manned  and  armed,  and  firing  9-pounder  from  the 
launch. 

2  days. — General  description  of  all  fuses  used  in  the  naval  service,  method  of  fitting, 
.and  mode  of  supply. 

J  day. — General  description  of  war  and  life-saving  rockets,  tubes,  and  fireworks, 
used  in  the  service ;  their  use,  supply,  and  stowage  in  ships. 

•£  day. — Rocket-firing. 

1  day. — General  description  of  the  ammunition  in  use  for  Woolwich  guns,  including 
.filling  shell. 

1  day. — Firing  64-pounder  from  gunboat. 

1  day. — Life-saving  rocket  firing. 

•J  day. — General  description  of  the  ammunition  in  use  for  64-pounder  gun,  and  for 
"boat  and  field-guns. 

\  day. — General  description  of  the  ammunition  in  use  for  B.  L.  R.  guns. 

1  day. — General  description  of  magazines  and  shell-rooms,  stowage,  working,  and 
ventilation. 

1  day — Examination. 
Total,  10  days. 

4. — TRUCK  GUN. 

2  days. — Preliminary  drill,  as  in  the  Gunnery  Manual. 
1  day. — Firing  and  shifting  breechings. 

1  day. — Transporting,  dismounting,  and  exercise  with  diminished  crews. 

1  day. — Examination. 

Total,  5  days. 

Each  drill  begins  with  a  lesson  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

*  Miscellaneous  subjects  comprise  manual  and  firing  exercises,  sword-bayonet  exer- 
cise, exercise  for  receiving  cavalry,  funeral  exercise,  &c. 
S.  Ex.  51 6 


82  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT   BRITAIN. 

5. — MUSKETRY. 

10  days,  as  laid  down  in  the  "musketry  instruction,  including  lessons,  position  drill, 
aiming  drill,  judging-distance  drill,  and  practice;  blank  firing;  volley,  independent, 
and  skirmishing  firing,  and  moving-object  practice. 

6. — CUTLASS  AND  PISTOL. 

1  day, — Cntting  and  guarding  practice. 

1  day. — Pointing  and  general  practice. 

1  day. — Attack  and  defense  practice. 

1  day. — Attack  and  defense  practice,  and  pistol  drill. 

3  days. — Attack  and  defense  practice,  drilling  each  other,  loose  play,  pistol  drill  and 
firing,  and  cutting  lead. 

1  day. — Examination. 
Total,  8  days. 

7. — TURRET. 

2  days. — Preliminary  drill. 
1  day. — Practice. 

1  day. — Practice  and  examination. 

4  days. 

Firing  takes  place  as  convenient.  Steam  is  raised  on  the  third  day  for  each  class  to 
•work  the  turrets. 

8. — FIELD  GUN. 

1  day. — Preliminary  drill,  as  in  the  Gunnery  Manual,  up  to  and  including  "Front 
limber  up,"  and  comprising  such  exercises  as  formation  of  gun's  crew, 
stations,  marching,  inclining,  taking  ground,  reversing,  wheeling,  &c. ; 
front  unlimbering,  loading,  firing. 

1  day. — Remainder  of  preliminary  drill,  including  unlimbering  and  limbering  up, 
reversing  in  a  narrow  passage,  ascending  and  descending  inclines,  and 
changing  front  in  action. 

1  day. — Gatling-gun  drill.     Embarking. 

1  day. — Target  practice  with  field  guns. 

1  day. — Target  practice  with  Gatling. 

2  days. — Drill  in  Part  II,  of  the  Manual ;  including  action;  retiring  with  the  prolonge, 

shifting  wheels,  removing  disabled  carriages,  &c; 
1  day. — Examination. 

8  days. 

The  drill  is  always  carried  out  with  limbers,  &c.,  packed  for  firing,  and 
practice  takes  place  according  to  the  state  of  the  tide. 

The  following  table  shows  the  details  of  the  practice  in  firing,  and  the 
number  of  rounds  fired  by  each  student  in  the  different  exercises : 


THE    GUNNERY    SHIP    EXCELLENT. 


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NAVAL    EDUCATION^&REAT    BRITAIN. 


2.— SHORT  COURSE. 

The  short  course  is  chiefly  a  modification  of  the  other.  Thus,  allowing 
ten  days  for  the  exercise  in  heavy  guns  (the  time  allowed  in  the  short 
course  for  men  qualifying  for  gunnery  ratings),  the  first  three  days  cover 
the  ground  of  the  first  four  days  in  the  long  course ;  the  fourth  (short 
course)  corresponds  to  the  12th  and  13th;  the  fifth,  to  the  5th  and  14thj 
the  sixth,  to  the  Gth  and  15th ;  and  so  on.  In  field  exercise  a  similar  plan 
is  pursued,  tout  the  course  is  even  more  curtailed.  In  ammunition,  pis- 
tol drill,  musketry,  and  other  branches,  the  chief  omissions  are  in  the 
firings.  The  short  course,  varied  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  -&f  students,  may  be  said  to  be  the  course  pursued  by  act- 
ing sub-lieutenants,  voluntary  lieutenants,  and  officers  of  the  Marine 
Artillery.  A  still  shorter  course  is  taken  by  the  voluntary  captains  and 
commanders. 

3.— ACTING  SUB-LIEUTENANTS'  EXAMINATION. 

It  remains  to  notice  the  important  points  in  the  examination  of  acting 
sub-lieutenants.  This,  as  has  been  before  stated,  is  the  third  and  final 
examination  of  these  officers  before  confirmation  as  sub-lieutenants,  the 
other1  two  being  seamanship,  conducted  on  shipboard,  and  navigation 
•and  kindred  subjects,  at  the  college  at  Greenwich.*  It  is  therefore  the 
last  required  examination  in  their  career  as  officers.  There  are  other 
examinations,  at  is  true,  which  officers  are  required  to  pass  who  adopt 
certain  specialties,  as  gunnery,  navigation,  &c.,  and  there  are  examina- 
tions at  the  close  of  the  lieutenants'  course  at  Greenwich,  but  in  all  these 
»cases  the  preliminary  steps  which  involve  an  examination  are  voluntary 
^with  each  individual.  The  examination  in  gunnery  is  practically,  then? 
the  last  required  examination  for  officers. 

The  time  of  the  examination  is  five  days,  and  the  numbers  given  in 
each  branch  are  as  follows : 

Jftelatfive  weights  for  passing  certificates.—  Acting  sub-lieutenants'  gunnery  examination. 


Subjects. 

Maximum. 

Minimum  for  — 

First 
class. 

Second 
class. 

Third 
class. 

100 
100 
100 
50 
50 
50 
50 
100 

90 
90 
90 
45 
45 
45 
45 
90 

80 
80 
80 
40 
40 
40 
40 
80 

70 
70 
70 
35 
35 
35 
35 
70 

Truck  gun  

"Cutlass  and  pistol  •  
'Turret  

Tield  gun  aucl  battery  ;  
Ilieoretical  and  general  questions  

"Jota)                                 

600 

540 

480 

420 

*  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  new  regulation,  which  goes  into  effect  in 
1883,  establishing  a  fourth  examination,  in  pilotage. 


THE  GUNNERY  SHIP  EXCELLENT.  85 

As  to  the  requirements  and  character  of  this  examination.  In  the 
branch  relating  to  heavy  guns,  each  sub-lieutenant  is  required  to  be  able 
to  take  any  number  at  a  gun,  and  to  drill  in  Part  II  of  the  Gunnery  Man- 
ual, with  detail.  He  is  also  to  answer  all  questions  connected  with  the 
instruction,  parts  of  the  gun,  carriage  and  slide,  dismounting  the  gear, 
adjusting  and  mounting  the  compressor,  &c.  He  must  be  able  to  drill 
quarters  efficiently,  and  to  detect  and  correct  mistakes. 

In  field  exercise,  candidates  must  put  a  squad  through  rifle  exercises 
and  squad  drill,  with  detail,  and  be  able  to  perform  thoroughly  the  duties 
of  officer  and  man  in  company  drill,  and  to  give  general  detail  of  any 
section.  He  must  be  able  to  give  any  of  the  selected  sections  of  the 
battalion  in  Part  III  of  the  Gunnery  Manual,  and  to  answer  other  ques- 
tions relating  to  instruction,  and  especially  the  details  of  equipment  for 
lauding. 

In  ammunition  he  is  required  to  describe  and  state  the  use  of  the  dif- 
ferent fuses,  and  to  explain  the  supply  and  stowage  of  projectiles,  filling; 
and  using,  and  the  proportion  allowed ;  to  give  the  names  and  describe 
the  manufacture  and  use  of  the  different  powders  in  the  service,  and  the 
stowage  and  working  of  magazines  and  shell-rooms,  and  to  explain 
rocket  and  mortar  boats,  the  manufacture  of  cartridges,  the  supply  of 
boat's  stores,  and  the  working  of  boat's  guns. 

In  truck-guns  the  examination  is  similar  to  that  in  heavy  guns,  but 
goes  less  deeply  into  the  subject,  on  account  of  the  shorter  time  devoted 
to  it.  Under  the  head  of  turret-instruction  the  examination  covers  the 
duties  and  position  of  the  different  numbers  in  loading,  training,  and 
running  in  and  out  turret-guns ;  the  principle  of  turret-firing  and  the 
method  of  sighting,  the  supply  of  projectiles,  and  the  construction  and 
support  of  the  turret. 

In  cutlass  and  pistol  exercise  the  candidate  is  required  to  perform 
the  exercise  and  put  a  squad  through  without  detail. 

In  field-gun  and  battery  he  must  perform  any  duty  in  the  drill,  with 
detail  of  the  various  mauoeuvers.  In  battery  drill  he  must  be  prepared 
with  any  selected  sections,  and  he  must  understand  the  method  of  em- 
barking and  disembarking  field-guns  from  boats. 

Finally,  he  must  pass  a  paper  on  the  theory  of  gunnery,  and  an  oral 
examination  composed  of  general  questions  on  the  Gunnery  Manual. 

On  passing  this  examination  the  acting  sub-lieutenants  are  confirmed 
in  their  rank,  and  become  eligible  for  promotion  in  the  order  of  their 
seniority.  The  number  of  each  certificate  is  noted  in  the  Navy  List. 
The  Goodenough  gold  medal  is  given  to  the  acting  sub-lieutenant  who? 
among  those  who  have  taken  a  first  class  in  seamanship,  passes  the 
best  examination  in  gunnery.  An  officer  failing  to  obtain  a  certificate 
in  gunnery  is  allowed  a  month's  further  study,  and  at  the  end  of  it  a 
re-examination.  If  he  fail  to  pass  this  he  is  discharged  from  the  service.* 

*  Specimens  of  examination-papers  for  sub-lieutenants  and  for  gunnery  lieutenants 
on  board  the  Excellent  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  Note  G. 


86  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

4. — GUNNERY  LIEUTENANTS'  EXAMINATION. 

The  examination  for  gunnery  lieutenants  is  of  course  much  higher  and 
more  complete  than  that  just  described.  It  has  already  been  stated 
what  percentages  are  necessary  to  obtain  certificates  in  the  Greenwich 
examination.  The  passing  limit  is  higher  in  the  practical,  or  gunnery 
course,  than  in  the  theoretical ;  especially  in  the  case  of  the  second  class 
certificate,  the  limit  for  which  is  so  low  (30  percent.)  at  Greenwich,  that 
it  must  require  very  little  diligence  or  ability  to  pass.  In  the  practical 
examination  at  the  end  of  the  Excellent  course  for  gunnery  lieutenants, 
the  relative  weights  are  as  follows : 

Maxima. 

1.  Heavy  gun 220 

2.  Field-exercise 280 

3.  Ammunition,  including  laboratory  course 280 

4.  Truck-gun 100 

5.  Cutlass  and  pistol..; 90 

6.  Field-gun  and  field-battery 120 

7.  Turret 90 

8.  Musketry 90 

9.  Drilling 80 

10.  General  questions 100 

11.  Theory 200 

12.  Torpedo 400 

Total , 2,050 

Practical : 

First  class,  1,650,  about  80  per  cent. 
Second  class,  1,250,  about  60  per  cent. 

Theoretical  (Greenwich): 
First  class,  about  60  per  cent. 
Second  class,  about  30  per  cent. 

Final  gunnery  certificates : 
First  class. — First  in  both  theory  and  practice. 
Second  class. — First  in  one  and  second  in  the  other. 
Third  class. — Second  in  both. 

Gunnery  lieutenants  may  be  re-appointed  to  the  Excellent,  on  their  own 
application,  after  an  absence  of  three  years.  The  course  of  instruction 
in  such  cases  is  of  five  months'  duration. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

TORPEDO  INSTRUCTION. 

Instruction  in  torpedoes  is  given  on  board  the  Vernon,  at  Portsmouth, 
which  forms  a  sort  of  floating  torpedo-school,  as  the  Excellent  is  a  float- 
ing gunnery-school.  The  Vesuvius,  a  double-screw  iron  torpedo-vessel, 
of  260  tons,  is  attached  as  a  tender  to  the  Vernon.  The  officers,  for  in- 
struction and  otherwise,  are  a  captain,  commander,  three  torpedo  lieuten- 
ants, two  engineers,  and  eleven  gunners.  There  are  also  in  the  Vesu- 
vius a  torpedo  lieutenant,  a  chief  engineer,  and  a  gunner.  The  lieuten- 
ants generally  hold  their  position  for  two  or  three  years. 

Lieutenants  desirous  of  qualifying  as  torpedo  officers  are,  when  em- 
ployed, to  be  recommended  to  the  Admiralty  by  their  captains,  through 
the  commanders-in-chief.  Appointments  are  made  to  the  Vernon  on  Oc- 
tober 1,  of  each  year,  and  officers  so  appointed  remain  on  the  ship's  books 
during  the  whole  course.  Candidates  who  have  not  served  one  year  at  sea 
as  lieutenants  are  appointed  to  a  sea-going  ship  to  complete  that  period  as 
officer  of  the  watch.  The  total  period  of  instruction,  including  a  vacation 
of  three  weeks,  is  eighteen  months,  and  is  distributed  as  follows :  Theo- 
retical course  at  Greenwich,  nine  months;  senior  torpedo-course,  two 
months ;  Whitehead  instruction,  three  weeks ;  diving  instruction  in  Ex- 
cellent, two  weeks ;  vacation,  three  weeks ;  and  torpedo  instruction  in 
Vernon,  five  months. 

The  final  examination  is  in  March,  after  passing  which  the  torpedo 
lieutenant,  unless  his  services  are  absolutely  required  at  sea,  takes 
part  in  the  torpedo  course  ending  in  June  and  assists  in  the  instruc- 
tion of  officers.  If  not  then  required  for  sea-service  he  continues  to 
assist  in  the  senior  course  ending  in  September.  Between  these  two 
courses  a  period  of  fourteen  days'  leave  is  allowed.  If  it  is  found 
during  any  period  of  the  course  that  a  lieutenant  is  not  likely  to  prove 
efficient  as  a  torpedo  officer,  his  name  is  submitted  to  the  Admiralty 
with  a  view  to  his  removal  from  the  books  of  the  Vernon.  Officers 
qualifying  within  the  stipulated  period  are  allowed  to  count  the  whole 
time  they  are  borne  in  the  Vernon  as  time  on  full  pay.  Officers  who  have 
taken  more  than  the  regular  time  to  qualify  count  any  surplus  as  half- 
pay  tune,  and  those  who  do  not  qualify  at  all  count  the  whole  time  of 
their  service  in  the  Vernon  as  half -pay  time. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  subjects,  with  their  relative  weight,  in  the 
course  for  torpedo  officers  : 

THEORETICAL    COURSE — GREEX'WICH. 

A.  Pure  mathematics :  Maximum  marks. 

I.  Arithmetic  and  mensuration 100 

II.  Geometry,  first  six  books  of  Euclid 200 

III.  Algebra 300 

IV.  Trigonometry 300 

V.  Co-ordinate  geometry,  including  conic  sections 400 

1,300 


88  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

B.  Applied  mathematics :                                                                               Maximum  marks. 
I.  Statics 300 

II.  Hydrostatics 300 

III.  Kinematics  and  kinetics 300 

900 

C.  Physics,  including  heat,  light,  electricity,  and  magnetism  : 

I.  Theoretical 500 

II.  Practical 300 

800 

D.  Chemistry : 

I.  Theoretical 500 

II.  Practical  ..  .300 


E.  Marine  surveying.. 


Total 4,100 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  aggregate  is  the  same  as  in  the  course  for 
gunnery  lieutenants,  though  the  course  is  somewhat  different,  and  the 
separate  marks  are  differently  distributed.  The  relative  proportion  of 
marks  for  first  and  second  class  certificates  is  also  the  same  as  for  gun- 
nery lieutenants,  2,500  for  a  first  class,  and  the  very  low  limit  of  1,200 
for  a  second. 

PRACTICAL  COURSE — VERNON. 

I.  Electricity  as  applied  to  naval  purposes 200 

II.  Submarine  mines 100 

III.  Outrigger  and  Harvey  torpedoes 100 

IV.  Attack  of  submarine  mines,  and  defense  against  torpedoes 100 

V.  Whitehead  torpedo 200 

VI.  Ability  as  a  lecturer 100 

Total 800 

For  a  certificate  in  the  practical  course  650  numbers  must  be  obtained. 
This  is  an  absolute  requirement  for  all  officers  to  puss  as  torpedo-lieu- 
tenants. Their  further  classification  into  1st  class  and  2d  class,  for 
which  they  receive  different  rates  of  extra  pay,*  depends  wholly  on  their 
certificate  in  the  theoretical  course  at  Greenwich. 

Provision  is  made  for  a  short  course  of  instruction  in  torpedoes  on 
board  the  Vernon,  similar  to  the  short  course  in  the  Excellent;  and 
torpedo  lieutenants,  after  a  three  years'  absence,  are  allowed  to  return 
to  the  school  for  a  five  months'  course  of  instruction. 

*  See  appendix,  Note  A. 


CHAPTEE  X. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  ENGLISH  SYSTEM. 

Made  up  as  the  English  system  is  of  diverse  elements,  it  has  a  certain 
unity  throughout,  which  is  due  solely  to  the  fact  that  the  whole  is  prac- 
tically under  one  head.  Except  for  the  gunnery  training,  for  which  the 
Excellent  is  responsible,  and  the  seamanship,  which  is  instilled  by  some 
process  on  board  ship,  the  whole  training  of  officers  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Director  of  Studies  at  Greenwich.  His  control  does  not  go 
so  far  as  the  devising  of  a  general  plan  ;  that  is  a  matter  for  the  Admi- 
ralty. But  the  specific  application  of  the  plan  in  all  its  details  rests  with 
him ;  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  whatever  may  be  the  faults  of  the  English 
system,  they  do  not  lie  in  the  application  of  it.  From  the  time  the  young 
lad  of  twelve  or  thirteen  passes  his  examination  for  a  cadetship  down  to 
his  last  voluntary  course  as  a  captain,  through  the  Britannia,  the  course 
afloat,  the  sub-lieutenants'  collegiate  course,  and  the  subsequent  volun- 
tary studies,  his  education  is  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Hirst,  under  the  Admi- 
ralty rales,  and  it  is  managed  with  all  the  wisdom  and  judgment  that 
the  rules  will  permit.  The  importance  of  this  single  head  for  the  whole 
system  cannot  be  overestimated. 

In  the  English  service  there  seems  to  be  a  theory  that  a  naval  officer 
is  a  creature  of  a  delicate  and  sensitive  organization,  whose  regard  for 
his  profession  and  whose  zeal  for  a  high  standard  of  professional  attain- 
ment must  be  stimulated  by  surrounding  him  eternally  with  all  its  minor 
details,  to  an  extent  unknown  in  any  other  walk  of  life.  To  make  a  sailor, 
he  must  begin  at  twelve  or  thirteen,  even  though  he  does  not  go  to  sea 
for  two  years,  to  accustom  him  early  to  his  duties.  During  these  two 
years  he  must  live  on  board  a  ship,  and  be  able  to  climb  the  rigging,  to 
familiarize  himself  with  details  ;  though  the  ship  lies  at  anchor  in  a  river,  a 
few  yards  from  the  shore,  and  carries  no  spars  but  her  foremast  and  head 
booms.  He  must  sleep  in  a  hammock  to  inure  himself  to  hardship.  In  the 
opinion  of  the  majority  of  officers,  he  must  have  his  college  for  higher 
instruction  in  a  naval  port,  or  he  will  forget  his  duties ;  and  he  must 
pursue  his  scientific  researches  in  a  dockyard,  because  he  will  be  sur- 
rounded by  officers  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  profession,  with  whom 
he  can  discuss  articles  in  the  professional  magazines. 

If  the  naval  profession  has  become  what  many  enlightened  officers  of 
the  present  day  would  have  us  believe,  an  occupation  involving  accu- 
rate scientific  knowledge,  the  system  of  training  in  England  has  a  ten- 
dency to  grasp  the  shadow  while  lasiug  the  substance.  The  expedients 
adopted  with  reference  to  the  higher  education  of  voluntary  students, 
and  the  admirable  courses  of  instruction  for  officers  who  have  taken  up 


90  NAVAL    EDUCATION GREAT    BRITAIN. 

one  branch  of  the  sendee,  notably  in  the  Excellent  and  Vernou,  do  much 
to  remedy  the  inherent  defects  of  the  system';  and  the  promotion  in  two 
grades  by  selection  excludes  the  most  incompetent  officers  from  positions 
of  great  responsibility.  But  it  seems  impossible  that  the  injurious  effects 
of  the  method  of  training  pursued  with  young  officers,  during  the  first 
eight  years  of  their  professional  life,  should  not  be  felt  by  the  vast  ma- 
jority throughout  their  whole  career.  The  peculiar  features  of  this 
training  have  been  already  pointed  out :  the  discouraging  efforts  in  the 
Britannia  to  attain  a  point  hopelessly  beyond  the  young  student's  reach; 
the  five  years  of  desultory  training  on  board  the  great  cruising  ships, 
passed  in  a  struggle  to  retain  and  comprehend  a  mass  of  undigested 
facts  and  principles,  crammed  for  the  immediate  purpose  of  passing  an 
examination ;  and,  finally,  the  review  course,  where  the  student  first  finds 
himself  fairly  on  his  feet,  in  his  relations  with  his  instructors.  The  fatal 
defect  of  the  system  has  been  aptly  set  forth  in  a  remark  of  one  of  the 
Greenwich  professors,  in  his  evidence  before  the  commission,  where  he 
says  that  the  standard  for  sub-lieutenants  is  the  same  as  that  for  cadets 
in  the  Britannia;  but  the  essential  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that  at 
Greenwich  the  students  actually  reach  the  standard,  while  at  Dartmouth 
they  do  not.*  No  one  who  has  had  much  experience  in  educational 
methods  will  deny  that  such  a  system  must  be  productive  of  harmful 
results  when  applied  rigorously  to  the  training  of  a  body  of  young  men; 
and  one  is  therefore  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  high  scientific  and 
professional  attainments  of  many  English  naval  officers  are  not  in  con- 
sequence, but  in  spite,  of  their  early  education. 

*  Question  626. 


II. 
FKANCE. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  PERSONNEL. 

r  . 

I. — LINE  OFFICERS  (officiers  de  vaisseau). 

The  corps  of  line  officers  in  the  Navy  is  recruited  from  four  different 
sources :  (1)  Aspirants  or  naval  cadets,  graduated  from  the  Naval  School 
at  Brest ;  (2)  aspirants  chosen  from  among  the  graduates  of  the  Poly- 
technic School  at  Paris ;  (3)  first  masters  (premiers-maitres),  nominated 
for  the  grade  of  ensign  after  undergoing  an  examination ;  (4)  auxiliary 
ensigns  who  have  received  the  certificate  of  sea-captain  (capitaine  au  long 
cours)  in  the  merchant  service,  and  who  are  admitted  to  the  titular  grade 
of  ensign. 
The  grades  in  the  corps  of  line  officers  are  as  follows : 

Admiral. 

Vice-admiral. 

Rear-admiral. 

Captain. 

Commander  (capitaine  defregate). 

Lieutenant,  first  and  second  class. 

Ensign. 

Midshipman  (aspirant,  Here  classe). 

Cadet  (aspirant,  2ieme  classe). 

The  vice-admirals  and  rear-admirals  form  the  roll  (cadre)  of  the  gen- 
eral staff  of  the  Navy.  This  roll  is  divided  into  two  sections :  the  first 
comprising  those  in  active  service  and  those  waiting  orders  (en  disponi- 
lilite) ;  the  second  comprising  the  reserve.  Yice-admirals  at  the  age  of 
sixty-five  and  rear-admirals  at  sixty-two  pass  from  the  first  to  the  sec- 
ond section,  with  certain  exceptions.  In  time  of  peace  employment  is 
only  given  to  officers  of  flag-rank  of  the  first  section  j  but  during  war 
officers  of  the  reserve  can  be  appointed  to  commands. 

If  at  any  time  during  war  the  full  number  of  officers  is  inadequate  to 
the  needs  of  the  service,  the  want  is  supplied  by  auxiliary  officers  chosen 
among  the  merchant-captains.  These  merchant-captains,  whose  grade 
in  the  Navy  is  that  of  ensign,  correspond  to  the  English  Naval  Reserve. 
Promotions  are  made  partly  by  selection  and  partly  by  seniority,  from 
the  lowest  grade  up  to  and  including  that  of  commander.  Above  this 
point  they  are  wholly  by  seniority.  In  every  case,  however,  a  certain 
term  of  service  must  be  passed  in  each  grade  before  promotion  to  the 
next  higher.  In  the  case  of  midshipmen,  ensigns,  and  lieutenants,  the 
minimum  period  is  fixed  at  two  years  of  sea  service,  with  two  additional 
years  of  shore  duty  in  the  latter  grade.  Commanders  must  pass  three 
years  at  sea,  one  of  them  in  actual  command ;  or  four  years  in  the  grade, 
two  of  them  at  sea  and  two  in  command.  Captains  must  have  passed 


94  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

three  years  at  sea  in  that  grade,  or  two  years  at  sea  in  command  of  a 
naval  division.  Eear-admirals  must  pass  two  years  in  that  grade  at  sea 
in  a  squadron.  The  highest  rank  in  the  Navy,  that  of  admiral,  is  an 
exceptional  honor,  conferred  only  upon  a  vice-admiral  who  has  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  chief  command  of  a  naval  force  in  time  of  war. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  no  officers  of  this  rank  in  the  French  Navy. 
Officers  are  divided  in  equal  numbers  among  the  five  naval  arrondisse- 
ments — Cherbourg,  Brest,  Lorient,  Eochefort,  and  Toulon.  Each  officer 
is  attached  to  the  chief  port  of  the  district ;  and,  if  below  the  grade  of 
commander,  he  is  required  to  reside  there.  A  roster  of  officers  is  kept 
at  each  port,  upon  which  is  based  the  detail  for  sea  duty. 

II.— ENGINEER  MECHANICIANS  (mecaniciens-en-chef  et  mecaniciens  prin- 

cipaux). 

The  officers  of  this  corps  have  supervision  of  the  engines  and  ma- 
chinery on  board  all  the  ships  of  the  division  to  which  they  are  attached. 
Their  sea  duties,  therefore,  correspond  to  those  of  fleet  engineers  in  the 
United  States -Navy.  They  also  serve  to  some  extent  as  engineers  (not 
fleet  officers)  on  board  a  few  of  the  largest  ships.  On  shore  their  special 
duty  is  in  connection  with  the  instruction  of  machinists  (mecaniciens)  and 
firemen.  They  are  chosen  from  the  master-machinists,  and  may  there- 
fore be  considered,  to  a  great  extent,  as  occupying  higher  grades  in  the 
corps  of  machinists.  They  hold  relative  rank  as  commissioned  officers, 
but  they  rank  only  with  the  lower  grades  of  the  line.  The  name  en- 
gineer (ingenieur)  is  not  applied  to  them,  but  is  given  only  to  the  con- 
structors and  the  hydrographers.  The  grades  and  numbers  of  the  corps 
are  as  follows  : 
Mechanicians-in-chief,  with  relative  rank  of  captain  of  corvette  (lieuteuant-com- 

niander) 2 

Principal  mechanicians,  first  class  (rank  of  lieutenant) * 8 

Principal  mechanicians,  second,  class  (rank  of  ensign) ,..  ... 40 

III. — MISCELLANEOUS  STAFF  CORPS  (corps  entretenus  et  agents  divers). 

1.  Engineer  corps  (genie  maritime). 

This  is  really  the  construction  corps  of  the  French  Navy,  and  it  in- 
cludes the  most  accomplished  men  of  science  in  the  service.  Their  du- 
ties are  the  designing  of  ships  and  engines,  the  supervision  of  their  con- 
struction and  repair,  either  in  dockyards  or  at  private  works,  and  the 
care  of  timber  required  for  ship-building.  The  corps  is  composed  of — 

Inspector-general,  taking  rank  with  rear-admiral 1 

Directors  of  naval  construction,  after  rear-admiral  and  before  captain 11 

Engineers,  first  class,  with  captain 20 

Engineers,  second  class,  with  commander 20 

Assistant  engineers  (sous-inyfrrieurs)  of  the  first  and  second  classes,  with  lieutenant.  52 

Assistant  engineers,  third  class,  with  ensign 14 

Engineer  pupils  (eleves  dit  y<!>tie  maritime),  with  midshipman 7 

Officers  of  the  engineer  corps  are  selected  from  the  graduates  of  the 
Polytechnic  School  at  Paris.  After  admission  to  the  corps,  they  pass 


ORGANIZATION    OF    THE   PERSONNEL.  95 

through  the  school  of  application  for  the  engineer  corps  at  Cherbourg. 
At  the  close  of  the  cruise  they  are  examined  for  promotion  to  the  grade 
of  assistant  engineer  of  the  third  class.  Promotion  to  the  grade  of 
assistant  engineer  of  the  second  class  only  follows  after  two  years  of 
service,  but  in  all  subsequent  promotions  three  years  of  service  in  the 
lower  grade  are  required  as  a  qualification.  Promotion  to  the  three 
highest  grades  is  by  selection  ;  to  engineer  of  the  second  class  and 
assistant  engineer  of  the  first  class,  half  by  selection  and  half  by 
seniority  ;  and  to  the  lower  grades,  strictly  by  seniority. 

One-sixth  of  the  vacancies  in  the  grade  of  assistant  engineer  of  the 
third  class  are  reserved  for  masters  (maitres  entretenus),  of  the  corps  of 
naval  construction,  who  have  performed  a  year  of  service  in  this  grade 
and  passed  the  required  examination. 

2.  Engineer  hydrographers  (ingenieurs-hydrographes). 

The  duties  of  engineer  hydrographers  consist  in  the  preparation  of 
charts  and  sailing  directions  j  the  summarizing  of  nautical  and  scientific 
documents  collected  by  the  Depot  des  Cartes  ;  observations  of  tides; 
magnetic  and  meteorological  observations  ;  care  of  nautical  instruments 
used  on  shipboard  j  and  preparation  for  the  press  of  scientific  treatises 
undertaken  by  the  Navy  Department. 

The  hydrographic  officers  have  the  same  relative  rank  in  their  respect- 
ive grades  as  the  officers  of  the  corps  du  genie,  the  hydrographer-in- 
chief  ranking  with  the  director  of  naval  construction.  The  grades  and 
numbers  are  as  follows  : 

Engineer  hydrographer-in-chief  ................................................  1 

Engineers,  first  class  ..........................................................  3 

Engineers,  second  class  ........................................................  3 

Assistant  engineers,  first  and  second  classes  .....................................  4 

Assistant  engineers,  third  class  ...............................................  2 

Engineer  pupils,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  service. 

Pupils  of  the  corps  are  taken  from  the  graduates  of  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  have  two  years  of  sea  service  before  their  first  promotion. 

3.  Medical  corps  (corps  de  sante).* 
a.  Surgeons'  division  (service  medical)  : 

Inspector-general,  taking  rank  with  rear-admirals  ............................          1 

Medical  directors,  first  class,       ?    *    f    ,         ,•{...  3 

Medical  director^  second  class,  \   before  caPtains  \  ..........................          4 

Surgeons-in-chief,  with  captains  .............................................        16 


old  grade  of  captain  of  corvette  { 


Surgeons,  first  class,  -with  lieutenants  ................................  .•  .......  161 

Surgeons,  second  class,  with  ensigns  ........................................  163 

Assistant  surgeons,  with  midshipmen  ........................................  150 

b.  Pharmacists'  division  (service  pharmaceutique)  : 

Pharmacist  inspector,  after  rear-admirals  ....................................  1 

Pharmacists-in-chief,  with  captains  ..........................................  4 


*  The  organization  and  methods  of  the  French  medical  schools  have  been  fully  de- 
scribed and  discussed  in  the  report  of  Medical  Inspector  Dean,  U.  S.  N. 


96  mVAL    EDUCATION FRANCE. 

Pharmacists,  first  class,  with  lieutenants , 12 

Pharmacists,  second  class,  with  ensigns 16 

Assistant  pharmacists,  with  midshipmen 19 

4.  Examiners  aiid  professors  of  hydrography. 

Examiners,  with  relative  rank  of  captain 3 

Professors,  first  class,  with  relative  rank  of  commander 10 

Professors,  second  class,  with  relative  rank  of  lieutenant 10 

Professors,  third  class,  with  relative  rank  of  ensign 3 

The  professors  of  this  corps  are  employed  in  the  schools  of  hydrogra- 
phy, of  which  the  examiners  have  the  general  direction,  in  matters  re- 
lating to  instruction.  The  latter  have  also  charge  of  the  examination  of 
persons  in  the  merchant  service  who  are  seeking  a  license  as  sea-captain 
(capitaine  au  long  cours)  or  master  of  coasting  vessel  (maitre  au  cabotage). 

Professors  of  the  third  class  are  appointed  by  the  President,  after  a 
competitive  examination,  from  naval  officers  and  sea-captains  who  apply, 
who  are  at  least  thirty  years  of  age,  and  have  seen  two  years'  sea  serv- 
ice. Promotions  in  the  corps  are  made  by  the  Minister  of  Marine,  on 
recommendation  of  the  hydrographic  examiners.  The  examiners  them- 
selves are  promoted  by  selection  from  professors  of  the  first  class. 

5.  Professors  at  the  Naval  School. 

Professors  of  the  first  class , 6 

Professors  of  the  second  class 2 

Professors  of  the  third  class 2 

Professors  of  the  fourth  class 2 

Professors  at  the  Naval  School  are  selected  by  the  Minister  from  uni- 
versity graduates,  and  they  have  the  same  relative  rank  as  professors 
•of  hydrograpuy.  » 

6.  Pay  corps  (officiers  du  commissariat}. 

The  administrative  duties  of  this  corps  are  of  an  exceedingly  complex 
and  extensive  character,  embracing  not  only  matters  relating  to  pay, 
provisions,  clothing,  purchases,  and  stores,  but  also  to  equipment,  re- 
cruiting (inscription  maritime),  administration  of  hospitals  and  prisons, 
wrecks,  sale  of  prizes,  and  other  miscellaneous  subjects. 

The  corps  is  composed  of  the  following  officers : 

Commissaries-general,  taking  rank  after  rear-admirals 9 

Commissaries,  with  captains 26 

Commissaries'  adjoints,  with  captain  of  corvette 50 

Sub-commissaries,  with  lieutenants 180 

Assistant  commissaries  (aides  commissaires),  with  ensigns 150 

Commissary  pupils  (Sieves) 30 

Commissary  pupils  are  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Marine.  Candi- 
dates must  have  taken  the  degree  of  licentiate  in  law.  or  that  of  lache- 
lier-es-lettres.  In  the  latter  case,  they  must  pass  a  competitive  exami- 
nation. Those  who  receive  appointments  are  sent  to  one  of  the  naval 
ports  to  pursue  a  course  in  naval  administration  under  the  direction  of 
a  superior  officer  of  the  corps.  The  extreme  thoroughness  of  these 
•courses  may  be  seen  in  the  able  lectures  of  M.  Fournier,  on  the  laws 
Nof  maritime  police,  delivered  at  the  commissary  school  at  Brest,  and  re- 


ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    PERSONNEL.  97 

cently  published.  They  are  characterized,  in  the  highest  degree,  by  that 
systematic  arrangement  and  lucidity  of  exposition  which  distinguish 
French  administrative  papers.  The  courses  are  two  years  for  licentiates 
and  three  years  for  the  others.  At  their  close,  the  commissary  pupils 
pass  an  examination  for  promotion.  Eight  vacancies  for  the  grade  of 
aide  commissaire  are  reserved  annually :  two  for  ensigns,  selected  by  the 
Minister,  on  their  own  application;  two  for  graduates  of  the  Polytechnic 
School ;  and  four  for  commissary's  clerks,  between  twenty-five  and 
thirty-five  years  of  age,  bachelors  of  arts  or  of  science,  who  pass. suc- 
cessfully a  competitive  examination. 

7.  Commissariat  clerks  (commis  du  commissariat). 

These  are  recruited  from  warrant  and  petty  officers,  seamen,  and  ma- 
rines, and  from  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  Army  who  have  com- 
pleted their  term  of  service. 

8.  Civil  engineers  of  the  Ministry  of.Public  Works  (ingenieurs  desponts 
et  chamsees). 

The  Ministry  of  Marine  obtains  from  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  a 
number  of  engineers  to  take  charge  of  hydraulic  works  in  the  forts,  and 
to  superintend  the  construction  and  repair  of  public  buildings  belong- 
ing to  naval  arsenals  and  dockyards.  They  continue  to  form  part  of 
the  corps  of  engineers  of  roads  and  bridges,  but  they  are  under  the 
authority  of  the  Savy  Department,  and  they  have  relative  rank  with 
naval  constructing  engineers. 

9.  Inspectors  of  administrative  service. 

This  corps  is  composed  of  thirty  officers  of  high  relative  rank,  the 
highest  taking  rank  between  rear-admirals  and  captains,  and  the  lowest 
with  lieutenant-commanders.  Their  duties  consist  in  the  supervision  of 
the  administration  service  at  the  principal  naval  stations.  They  are 
selected  by  competition  among  lieutenants,  captains  of  Marine  Artillery, 
assistant  constructing  engineers,  and  assistant  commissaries. 

10.  Accounting    officers    and    storekeepers   (agents    comptables    des 
matieres). 

11.  Victualing  clerks  (commis  aux  vivres). 

12.  Keepers  of  ships'  stores  (magasiniers  entretenus  de  laflotte). 

13.  Overseers  of  public  works  (personnel  administratif  des  directions 
des  travaux). 

14.  Overseers  of  subsistence  (service  des  man  Mentions). 

15.  Overseers  of  hydraulic  works  (conducteurs  des  travaux  hydraul- 
iques). 

16.  Chaplains. 

17.  Hospital  attendants. 

IV.— MARINE  AND  COLONIAL  TROOPS. 

1.  Dockyard  gendarmerie. 

2.  Colonial  gendarmerie. 

3.  Marine  Artillery  (ArtiUerie  de  la  Marine  et  des  Colonies). 

S.  Ex.  51 7 


98  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

To  this  corps  belong  the  very  important  duties  of  the  supervision  of 
the  manufacture  of  naval  ordnance,  the  armanent  and  defense  of  sea- 
coast  fortifications,  the  direction  of  ordnance  work  in  the  dockyards, 
and  the  colonial  artillery  service. 

4.  Marine  Infantry. 

5.  Naval  armorers. 

(J.  Senegal  sharpshooters. 

7.  Senegal  Spahis. 

8.  Corps  of  Cipahis. 

9.  Corps  of  discipline  (penal  corps). 

10.  Corps  of  discipline  (colonial  penal  corps'). 

11.  Wardens  of  colonial  prisons. 

12.  Colonial  militia.* 

V. — WARRANT  OFFICERS,  PETTY  OFFICERS,  AND  SEAMEN. 

• 

MASTERS. — The  word  master  (maitre)  is  a  generic  term,  used  to  desig- 
nate those  persons  of  different  grades  who  exercise  direct  authority, 
under  the  commissioned  officers,  over  the  crew  at  sea,  and  over  work- 
men at  shore  stations.  At  sea,  masters  form  a  military  corps  called  the 
maistrance  de  laflotte.  In  the  dockyards  and  at  shore  stations,  masters 
are  charged  with  the  direct  supervision  of  public  work  of  all  kinds. 
The  latter  are  quite  distinct  from  the  sea-going  masters,  and  are  known 
collectively  as  the  maistrance  des  arsenaux. 

The  maistrance  des  arsenaux  is  composed  of  2G2  persons,  of  the  follow- 
ing grades : 

1.  Principal  masters  (mattres  principaux],  first  and  second  classes. 

2.  Maitres  entretenus,  first,  second,  and  third  classes. 

The  lowest  grade  is  recruited  from  the  contre-maitres  and  from  the 
sea- going  masters.  Below  the  masters  come  the  .men  employed  in  the 
dock-yard  works,  composing  a  body  of  artificers  (ouvriers).  These  are 
also  arranged  in  grades,  and  measures  are  taken  to  keep  them  per- 
manently in  the  service.  The  grades  are — 

Chief  contre-maitres. 

Contre-maitres. 

Chief  artificers. 

Artificers. 

Apprentices. 

Chief  day-laborers. 

Day-laborers,  of  four  classes. 

Promotion  takes  place  in  these  grades,  at  least  from  that  of  appren- 
tices, who  may  be  appointed  between  fourteen  and  seventeen  years  of 
age.  At  seventeen  or  eighteen  they  may  pass  for  artificers  upon  giving 

*  Fuller  information  in  regard  to  the  corps  of  officers  in  the  French  Navy  may  be 
obtained  from  a  series  of  articles  entitled  "  La  Marine  NHitaire  de  la  France,"  by  M.  J. 
Delarbre,  auditor-general  of  the  French  Navy,  in  the  Revue  Maritime  et  Coloniale, 
vol.  52. 


ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    PERSONNEL.  99 

proof  of  sufficient  aptitude.  Pay  is  partly  fixed  for  each  grade,  and 
partly  graduated  according  to  the  merits  of  the  workmen.  At  fifty 
years  of  age,  and  after  twenty-five  years  of  service,  artificers  are  en- 
titled to  a  pension. 

The  maistrance  de  la  Jiotte,  or  sea-going  masters,  (also  known  as  officiers 
mariniers)  is  composed  of  three  grades,  viz : 

First  masters. 

Masters. 

Second  masters. 

These  are  the  warrant-officers  of  the  Navy.  They  are  divided  into 
eight  classes,  according  to  the  special  branch  of  a  seaman's  occupation 
that  they  profess.  The  three  grades  run  through  all  these  classes.  The 
classes  or  specialties  are  as  follows: 

Seamanship  (manoeuvre). 

Gunnery. 

Small-arms. 

Helmsmen. 

Machinists. 

Carpenters. 

Sailmakers. 

Calkers. 

Below  the  three  grades  mentioned,  which  form  the  maistrance,*  come 
the  persons  composing  the  crews  of  ships,  known  under  the  general 
name  of  equipages  de  la  flotte.  They  are  graded  as  follows: 

Quartermasters  (of  the  various  specialties).    These  are  the  petty- 
officers. 

Seamen,  first,  second,  and  third  classes. 

Seamen  apprentices. 

Novices. 

Boys  (mousses). 

To  these  should  be  added,  to  complete  the  list,  the  special  ratings  of 
topmen  (gabiers)  and  small-arm  men  (marins  fusiliers). 

It  will  be  noticed  that  one  of  the  eight  specialties  named  above  is 
that  of  machinists,  whose  principal  duty,  as  might  be  supposed  from 
the  name,  is  that  of  directing  the  engines  at  sea.  This  branch  includes, 
like  the  others,  the  grades  of  first  master,  master,  second  master,  and 
quartermaster.  Ranking  with  the  quartermaster  machinist  are  the  ma- 
chinist pupils  (eleves  mecaniciens),  chosen  from  the  lower  grades  of  their 
corps,  from  graduates  of  technical  schools  (ecoles  (Parts  et  metiers),  and 
also  from  artisans  (smiths,  boilermakers,  &c.)  in  civil  life.  Below  them 
are  firemen  (ouvriers  chauffeurs)  of  three  classes  corresponding  to  the 
three  classes  of  seamen.  All  the  above  belong  to  the  equipages  de  la 
flotte,  the  class  including  all  sea-going  persons  in  the  Navy  who  do  not 
hold  a  commission. 

*  The  maistrance  also  includes  sergeant-majors,  quartermaster-sergeants,  and  cap  • 
tains  and  sergeants  of  anus. 


100  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

The  corps  of  commissioned  officers  iu  charge  of  fleet  engine  service 
has  been  already  alluded  to.  To  distinguish  them  from  the  warrant- 
officers  of  the  same  branch  they  are  designated  in  this  report  as  me- 
chanicians, while  the  others  are  spoken  of  as  machinists,  although  the 
same  word  mecanicien  is  used  in  the  French  Navy  to  apply  to  both 
classes.  They  must,  however,  be  considered  in  connection,  as  the  me- 
chanicians are  appointed  directly  from  the  highest  grade  of  machinists. 

The  whole  number  of  grades  of  commissioned  officers,  warrant  officers, 
petty  officers,  and  men,  attached  to  this  branch  of  the  naval  service,  is 
as  follows : 

Commissioned  officers : 
Mechanicians  in  chief. 
Principal  mechanicians,  first  class. 
Principal  mechanicians,  second  class. 

Warrant-officers  (officiers  mariniers,  maistrance) : 
First  master  machinists. 
Master  machinists. 
Second  master  machinists. 

Petty-officers  and  men : 
Quartermaster-machinists. 
Machinist  pupils. 

Firemen  artificers  (ouvriers  chauffeurs],  first,  second,  and  third  class. 
Firemen  (chauffeur*]  and  agents  inferieurs,  assimilated  to  the  third  or 

lowest  class  of  ordinary  seamen. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SCHOOLS. 

The  following  establishments  are  included  in  the  general  system  of 
education  of  officers  of  the  French  Navy. 

1.  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL. — Although  the  Polytechnic  School  is  de- 
signed for  the  preliminary  training  of  candidates  for  all  the  scientific 
branches  of  the  public  service,  or  at  least  for  all  branches  in  which 
scientific  knowledge  is  required,  and  has  no  direct  connection  with  the 
Ministry  of  Marine,  it  cannot  be  omitted  in  any  complete  description 
of  naval  education  in  France.    It  furnishes  a  certain  number  of  mid- 
shipmen (about  four  a  year)  to  the  line  of  the  Navy,  and  of  assistant 
commissaries  to  the  pay  corps ;  and  from  it  are  derived  two-thirds  of 
the  officers  of  the  Marine  Artillerj7,  and  all  the  pupils  of  the  corps  of 
engineers  (genie  maritime)  and  of  hydrographers.    In  most  of  these  cases 
its  function  is  distinctly  that  of  a  preparatory  school,  and  the  general 
instruction  given  by  it  in  science  arid  mathematics  is  supplemented  by 
special  and  professional  training  in  the  schools  of  the  selected  corps. 

2.  NAVAL  SCHOOL. — Two  schools  for  the  Navy  were  founded  in  1810,  at 
Brest,  and  at  Toulon.     In  1816  they  were  united  in  one,  which  was  placed 
at  Angouleme.    In  1827  the  Naval  School  was  removed  to  Brest,  where 
it  has  since  remained.    The  school  has  no  buildings  on  shore ;  like  the 
English  cadets'  school,  it  is  placed  on  board  an  old  ship  of  the  line,  the 
Borda,  anchored  in  the  roads  of  Brest.    The  Borda  is  commanded  by  a 
captain,  and  is  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  Prefet  of  the  sec- 
ond maritime  arrondissement.    It  has  a  staff  composed  of  a  commander, 
12  professors,  and  8  lieutenants. 

The  examination  for  admission  to  the  Naval  School  is  competitive. 
The  number  of  candidates  admitted  is  about  45  a  year,  and  the  course 
lasts  two  years.  At  its  close,  and  upon  passing  the  required  examina- 
tions, the  students,  who  have  up  to  this  time  been  called  simply  pupils 
(eleves).  become  cadets  (aspirants  de  Qieme  classe).  They  are  then  em- 
barked in  the  practice-ship,  which  is,  to  all  intents,  a  separate  estab- 
lishment. Here  they  are  joined  by  the  four  aspirants  who  have  been 
graduated  in  the  same  year  from  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  who  pur- 
sue the  studies  of  the  practice  cruise  with  the  graduates  of  the  Borda. 

3.  TRAINING  SCHOOL  FOR  LINE  OFFICERS  (Eoole  d1  application  des 
aspirants  de  marine). — The  training  school  into  which  the  graduates  of 
the  Borda  pass  is  on  board  the  practice-ship  Flore.    The  course  lasts 
nearly  a  year,  and  consists  in  the  study  and  practice  of  the  professional 
branches. 

4.  ENGINEERS'  TRAINING  SCHOOL  (ficole  d'application  du  genie  mari- 
time).— The  school  of  application  for  engineers  or  constructors  is  a  very 


102  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

ancient  establishment,  having  been  founded  at  Paris  in  1765.  It  was 
removed  in  1801  (An  X]  to  Brest,  and  later  to  Lorient,  re-established  in 
1854  at  Paris,  and  finally  established  at  Cherbourg  in  1872.  It  is  a 
school  of  ship  and  engine  design  and  construction,  and  it  corresponds 
in  a  general  way  to  the  advanced  classes  for  constructors  and  designing 
engineers  in  the  Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich.  Its  pupils  number 
about  four  a  year,  and  come  to  Cherbourg  after  graduation  at  the  Poly- 
technic School.  The  course  lasts  two  years,  and  at  its  close  graduates 
are  appointed  Assistant  engineers  of  the  third  class. 

5.  MEDICAL  SCHOOLS. — The  medical  schools  are  three  in  number,  at 
Brest,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon.    The  course  of  study  is  two  years ;  and 
the  students,  after  passing  the  examinations  at  the  close,  become  assist- 
ant surgeons  or  assistant  pharmacists. 

6.  TORPEDO  SCHOOL  (Ecole  dcs  defenses  sous-marines). — The  torpedo 
school  was  established  at  Boyardville,  in  the  island  of  Oleron,  in  1860, 
and  reorganized  in  1876.    It  is  under  the  command  of  a  captain,  and 
under  the  general  supervision  of  the  Pr<§fet  Maritime  of  Rochefort.    In- 
struction is  given  by  officers  detailed  as  professors,  and  also  by  warrant 
and  petty  officers.    A  small  vessel,  the  Messager,  is  attached  to  the 
school. 

7.  MACHINISTS'  SCHOOL  (Ecole  thcorique  ct pratique  des  mccaniciens). — 
Formerly  there  were  two  schools  for  machinists,  one  at  Brest  and  the 
other  at  Toulon.     Originally  founded  in  1860,  and  reorganized  in  1862, 
these  schools  were  united  early  in  the  present  year  in  a  single  estab- 
lishment at  Toulon,  with  a  greatly-improved  course  and  organization. 
The  object  of  the  school  is  the  training  of  the  warrant  and  petty  officers 
of  this  branch  for  higher  grades,  and  the  selection  by  a  competitive 
examination  of  those  who  are  worthy  of  promotion.    Although  no  com- 
missioned officers  attend  the  courses  of  the  school,  it  must  nevertheless 
be  considered  a  part  of  the  general  system  of  education  of  officers ; 
partly  because  the  principal  mechanicians  are  derived  directly  from  the 
first  master  machinists  who  have  passed  through  the  school,  and  partly 
because  those  who,  in  the  French  Navy,  are  classed  as  part  of  the 
Maistrance,  in  the  English  or  American  service  would  hold  a  commission. 

8.  GUNNERY  SCHOOL  (Ecole  ^application  de  cannonaye}. — This  school, 
similar  in  purpose  to  the  Excellent  in  the  English  Navy,  is  situated  at 
Toulon,  on  board  the  Souverain,  a  screw  steamer  of  the  first  class, 
mounting  25  guns.    The  brig  Janus  is  attached  as  an  "annexe"  to  the 
Souveraiu.    The  Arrogante,  the  floating  battery  which  sunk  not  long 
ago  off  the  lies  d'Hyeres,  was  also  a  part  of  the  establishment.    The 
school  is  intended  for  the  education  of  both  junior  officers  and  men  in 
practical  gunnery.    The  former  are  both  instructors  and  students,  and 
they  numbered,  in  1878,  22  lieutenants,  15  ensigns,  and  16  midshipmen. 

9.  ARTILLERY  SCHOOL  (Ecole  tfartilleric}. — The  artillery  school  is  at 
Lorient,  and  is  exclusively  for  the  training  of  officers  of  the  Marine 
Artillery. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
THE  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL. 

The  Polytechnic  School  has  been  so  often  and  so  thoroughly  described 
that  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  go  here  into  its  details.  It  is,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  the  preparatory  school  for  the  scientific  branches  of  the 
public  service.  It  is  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  War,  and  its 
organization  is  military.  At  its  head  is  a  general  officer  of  the  Army. 
With  him  are  associated  a  colonel,  as  second  in  command,  and  a  number 
of  commissioned  and  non-commissioned  officers  of  the  Army  in  charge 
of  the  details  of  discipline.  The  functions  of  all  these  officers  are  purely 
administrative.  They  have  nothing  to  do  with  instruction,  but  belong 
to  the  military  organization  of  the  school.  This  military  organization 
is  not,  however,  an  essential  feature  of  the  establishment.  It  exists 
chiefly  for  the  simplicity  and  ease  which  it  gives  to  the  machinery  of 
school  government,  and  for  the  benefits  derived  from  military  discipline 
in  the  training  of  youths  for  administrative  service.  The  students  wear 
a  uniform,  and  have  a  battalion  organization  and  occasional  drills;  but 
the  military  part  of  their  training  is  entirely  subordinate  to  the  scien- 
tific. 

The  academic  staff  is  composed  of  a  director  of  studies,  fifteen  profess- 
ors, twenty  tutors  (repetiteurs),  and  three  drawing  masters.  The  method 
of  instruction  is  quite  different  from  any  that  exists  in  America ;  and,  it 
might  almost  be  added,  in  the  rest  of  the  world,  outside  of  France.  The 
class  meets  the  professor  in  the  amphitheater,  where,  after  a  short  inter- 
rogation of  a  few  of  the  students  on  the  subject  of  the  previous  lesson,  a 
lecture  is  delivered,  the  students  taking  notes.  The  class  is  then 
broken  up  into  small  sections  and  sent  to  recitation  rooms,  where  a 
second  hour  is  passed  with  the  tutor  or  repetiteur  in  going  over  the 
lecture,  of  which  a  lithographed  summary  (feuille  autographiee)  is  deliv- 
ered to  the  class.  This  officer's  duty,  as  his  name  implies,  is  to  repeat 
the  instruction  given  by  the  professor.  During  the  hour  of  study,  notes 
on  the  lectures  are  carefully  written  out  and  explanations  are  given  by 
the  repetiteur,  as  may  be  necessary.  This  system  gives  a  close  personal 
character  to  the  instruction,  which  would  be  entirely  wanting  in  an  ordi- 
nary lecture- system. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  system  of  instruction  by  lectures  to 
large  classes,  when  not  supplemented  by  searching  tests,  is  only  suita- 
ble for  voluntary  students.  At  a  university  such  a  system  is  possible, 
because  the  choice  of  studies  and  the  degree  of  application  rest  largely 
with  the  student  himself,  and  the  object  is  not  so  much  to  compel  all  to 
reach  a  certain  standard,  as  to  afford  to  each  one  the  means  of  reaching 


104  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

the  standard  fixed  by  his  own  capacity  and  endeavor.  At  a  school 
like  the  Polytechnic,  however,  whose  diploma  carries  with  it  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  public  service,  and  which  graduates  a  number  just  large 
enough  to  fill  vacancies,  all  the  students  must  be  brought  up  to  the 
standard  of  attainment  that  the  future  career  exacts.  Nothing  can  be 
left  to  individual  choice  or  individual  volition.  A  pupil  who  is  dull  or 
indolent  cannot  be  passed  over,  nor  should  he,  except  in  extreme  cases, 
be  discharged ;  he  must  be  made  to  understand  and  made  to  study. 
The  duty  of  whipping  in  the  laggards  cannot  well  be  undertaken  by  the 
professor,  engaged  as  he  is  in  carrying  a  large  class  through  his  subject ; 
and  it  is  with  this  work  that  the  repetiteur  is  really  concerned,  the  work 
of  supplementing  and  making  personal  the  instruction  given  to  the 
class,  by  the  closest  attention  to  individual  wants  and  the  most  careful 
tests  of  individual  attainment.  Various  methods  are  adopted  to  test 
the  diligence  and  acquirements  of  the  students.  First,  there  is  the 
recitation  preceding  the  lecture,  to  which  the  professor  is  required  to 
devote  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes  of  his  total  time  of  an  hour  and  a 
half.  Another  hour  and  a  half  is  given  to  the  study  and  practice  with 
the  repetiteur^  following  the  lecture.  At  intervals,  brief  written  exam- 
inations (exercices  cC  application]  are  held,  the  class  being  divided  into 
sections  in  charge  of  the  professor  and  repetiteurs.  Each  examination 
consists  of  two  sessions ;  the  first  of  two  and  a  half  hours,  the  second  of 
one  and  a  half  hours.  At  the  first,  the  problems  or  exercises  are  worked 
out ;  at  the  second,  they  are  made  the  subject  of  explanation  and  reci- 
tation. In  physics  and  chemistry  these  exercises  consist  of  laboratory 
work.  After  every  five  or  six  lectures,  short  oral  examinations  (interro- 
gations particulieres)  of  five  or  six  students  at  a  time  are  held  by  the  re- 
petiteurs. These  come  irregularly,  and  the  student  who  is  to  be  called 
upon  has  only  a  brief  notice ;  so  that  he  must  be  ready  for  them  at  all 
times.  Of  course  these  examinations  take  up  a  considerable  time,  and 
the  instructor  must  make  short  work  of  it ;  twenty  minutes  only  are 
allowed  to  each  student.  At  the  end  of  each  course  a  fuller  oral  exam- 
ination (interrogation  generate)  is  held  on  the  subject  of  the  course.  In 
this,  half  an  hour  is  allowed  to  each  man.  Lastly,  there  are  the  exam- 
inations at  the  end  of  the  year. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  pupils  of  the  Polytechnic  School  are 
carefully  selected  at  the  start,  and  that  the  examination  for  admission 
insures  a  high  standard  of  preliminary  attainment.  It  is  an  open  com- 
petitive examination,  conducted  by  boards  at  various  cities  designated 
as  centers  of  examination.  The  candidates  must  be  between  sixteen 
and  twenty  years  of  age.  The  competition  is  exceedingly  close,  the 
number  of  candidates  being  usually  about  four  times  as  great  as  the 
number  of  appointments.  The  programme  of  examination  includes  arith- 
metic, geometry,  algebra,  trigonometry,  analytic  geometry  of  two  and 
three  dimensions,  descriptive  geometry,  physics,  chemisrry,  French,  Ger- 
man, and  drawing.  Even  with  this  high  standard  and  close  competition 


THE    POLYTECHNIC    SCHOOL.  105 

for  admission,  it  is  found  that  the  severity  of  the  course  at  the  school 
tells  hardly  upon  the  weaker  men ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  observation  that 
some  at  least  of  the  graduates,  on  being  subsequently  admitted  to  the 
special  schools  of  application,  show  signs  of  mental  exhaustion. 

The  following  table  gives  an  outline  of  the  course  of  study  at  the 
Polytechnic  School : 

FIRST   YE.AR. 

Calculus  (analyse) :  40  lessons,  4  written  examinations  (eompo»itlon3),  4  reviews  of 
examinations  (conferences). 

Mechanics:  40  lessons,  4  written  examinations,  4  reviews. 
Geometry :  32  lessons. 
Stereotomy :  26  lessons. 
Physics :  30  lessons. 
Chemistry :  32  lessons. 
Mechanical  drawing:  20  lessons. 
Freehand  drawing :  48  lessons. 
Literature :  24  lessons,  4  written  examinations. 
History :  25  lessons. 
German  :  25  lessons,  2  written  examinations. 

SECOND   YEAR. 

Calculus :  40  lessons,  4  written  examinations,  4  reviews. 

Mechanics :  40  lessons,  4  written  examinations,  4  reviews. 

Astronomy :  28  lessons. 

Physics :  30  lessons. 

Chemistry :  32  lessons. 

Architecture  :  36  lessons,  4  written  examinations. 

Topography :  5  lessons. 

Military  art :  19  lessoas. 

Mechanical  drawing :  20  lessons. 

Freehand  drawing :  48  lessons. 

Literature :  24  lessons,  4  written  examinations. 

History :  25  lessons. 

German :  25  lessons,  2  written  examinations. 

To  these  must  be  added:  (1)  the  hours  of  study  with  the  repetiteur, 
following  each  lecture ;  (2)  the  particular  oral  examinations  (interroga- 
tions particulicres),  at  irregular  intervals,  of  which  there  would  be,  for 
example,  about  eight  in  each  year's  course  in  calculus ;  (3)  the  general 
oral  examinations  at  the  end  of  each  course ;  and  (4)  the  annual  exami- 
nations. The  last  are  conducted  by  an  outside  board. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  programme  divides  the  lessons  about 
equally  between  three  groups  of  studies — mathematics,  scientific  sub- 
jects, and  miscellaneous  subjects,  including  history,  literature,  German, 
and  freehand  drawing.  The  best  part  of  each  working  day  is,  however, 
given  to  the  first  two  groups,  and  the  school  is  pre-eminently  a  school  of 
mathematics  and  science. 

The  following  table  shows  the  branches  of  the  government  service  for 
which  the  Polytechnic  School  gives  the  preparation,  and  the  number  of 
annual  appointments  in  each;  though  the  latter  must  be  taken  as  ap- 


106 


NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 


proximate,  the  numbers  varying  slightly  from  year  to  year  according  to 
the  needs  of  the  service. 


Number  of  an- 
nual appoint- 
ments. 

Service. 

Department. 

50 

ARMY. 

25 

3 

Staflf  corps  (etat-majo  r)       ) 

4 

NAVY. 

Executive  or  line  officers  (officiers  de  vaigseau)     ] 

10 

Marine  Artillery  I 

4 

Naval  architects  (gfnie  maritime)  J- 

Ministry  ot  Ma- 

1 2 

rine. 

2 

18 

CIVIL. 

Ministry  of  Pub- 

3 

lic  Works. 

1 

Ministry  of  the 

1 

Department  of  powder  and  saltpetre     ? 

Interior. 
Ministry   of  Fi- 

2 

Tobacco  department  (administration  dex  tabacs)  5 

nance. 

In  the  graduating  class,  the  student  who  stands  at  the  head  in  the 
final  classification  has  his  choice  of  career  among  all  the  vacant  appoint- 
ments. The  second  man  on  the  list  has  the  choice  of  what  is  left  by  the 
first,  and  so  on  to  the  foot  of  the  class.  The  choice  of  the  highest  men 
is  almost  invariably  fixed  on  the  departments  of  mines,  and  of  roads  and 
"bridges,  as  they  oifer  the  highest  inducements  in  the  way  of  pay  and 
emoluments.  After  these  come  naval  construction,  the  engineer  corps 
of  the  Army,  and  the  tobacco  department.  The  artillery  and  staff  corps 
fallow  next,  and  are  nearly  on  an  equality,  while  the  remaining  branches 
cime  at  intervals  up  and  down  the  list,  according  to  the  inclination  of 
individuals,  and  following  no  general  rule. 

A  word  should  be  said  in  regard  to  the  causes  of  the  success  of  the 
school,  a  success  so  remarkable  that  its  influence  on  the  public  service 
of  France  has  become  a  matter  of  history,  and  it  has  taken  a  place  among 
the  very  first  of  schools  of  its  class  in  the  world.  Founded  in  1799  by 
the  foremost  scientific  men  of  the  day,  such  as  La  Plact-,  La  Grange, 
Monge,  and  Fourcroy,  it  has  for  eighty  years  supplied  the  government 
with  its  ablest  civil  and  military  engineers.  Its  system  is  that  which 
was  devised  by  Monge  at  its  foundation,  and  which,  with  very  slight 
modifications,  has  been  retained  ever  since.  The  system  is  essentially 
one  of  lectures  delivered  by  the  ablest  professors  that  can  be  obtained, 
supplemented  by  compulsory  private  tuition  and  private  examination  by 
energetic  tutors.  Whether  the  system  is  one  susceptible  of  general  ap- 
plication is  a  question,  but  its  results  at  the  Polytechnic  School  are 
undoubted.  It  has  been  very  generally  imitated  in  other  French  schools 
for  higher  education,  and  the  lycees  and  communal  colleges,  which  give 


THE    POLYTECHNIC    SCHOOL.  107 

the  greater  part  of  secondary  instruction  in  France,  have  also  their  pro- 
fessorial lectures  and  interrogations  by  r6petiteurs.  It  is  a  fact  to  be 
noticed  that  a  very  similar  system  has  been  introduced  at  the  Eoyal 
Naval  College  at  Greenwich,  though  there  has  hardly  been  time,  as  yet, 
to  test  its  working. 

One  immense  advantage  possessed  by  the  Polytechnic  over  other 
schools  lies  in  the  rewards  which  it  oifers  to  successful  competitors.  The 
stimulus  given  by  competition  is  shown  in  the  results  of  every  year's 
work,  and  is  acknowledged  by  those  who  know  the  school  best  to  be 
one  of  the  most  powerful  incentives  to  effort,  if  not  the  most  powerful . 
It  is  not  so  much  that  one  career  holds  out  overwhelming  inducements, 
as  that  a  great  variety  of  careers  is  presented,  and  students  are  willing 
to  do  their  utmost  to  obtain  the  privilege  of  following  their  individual 
inclinations.  In  this,  perhaps,  lies  the  secret  of  the  school's  success, 
more  than  in  the  skill  of  the  instructors  or  the  method  of  instruction. 

It  is  not  [said  a  recent  director  of  studies]  our  interrogations,  our  examinations, 
and  other  contrivances,  which  make  the  pupils  work ;  it  is  not  even  the  system  of 
competition  by  itself;  it  is  not  mere  personal  ambition,  nor  the  desire  of  taking  the 
first  place  on  the  list.  All  these  conditions  exist  at  the  schools  of  application,  as  for 
instance,  at  Metz,*  ami  yet  the  results  in  regard  to  industry  are  widely  different.  It 
is  the  inequality  in  the  value  of  the  prizes  offered  to  them,  the  choice  of  careers  open  to 
them,  that  is  the  great  incentive^to  work  at  the  Polytechnic  ;  and  no  institution,  though 
it  may  imitate  the  Polytechnic  system,  can  secure  similar  results  unless  it  holds  out 
similar  inducements  to  pupils. 

Though  competition  produces'good  results  at  the  school  itself,  it  is  of 
more  doubtful  benefit  to  some  of  the  branches  of  service  whose  officers 
the  school  supplies.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  artillery,  which  is 
generally  the  last  choice  of  the  graduates,  and  which  is,  therefore,  re- 
cruited from  the  lower  part  of  the  list.  Complaints  have  been  made  by 
military  officers  that  the  scientific  corps  of  the  Army  get  only  the  fag- 
ends  of  classes  (queues  de  promotion),  whose  position  indicates  either  a 
want  of  ability  or  of  effort,  or  both.  Of  course,  among  these  students 
there  is  little  or  no  competition.  The  only  remedy  for  this  defect  would 
be  to  graduate  a  larger  number  than  the  vacancies  require,  but  this 
does  not  seem  to  be  a  part  of  the  policy  of  the  school. 

The  principal  advantages  derived  by  the  Navy  from  the  Polytechnic 
School  consist  in  the  high  preparatory  training  given  to  the  officers  of 
the  three  corps  of  constructors,  hydrographers,  and  marine  artillery. 
All  of  these  are  closely  connected  with  the  Navy  proper,  the  hydrogra- 
phers being  occupied  with  the  coast  survey  and  the  preparation  of  charts , 
the  artillery  with  the  manufacture  of  naval  ordnance  and  with  sea  coast 
fortification,  and  the  constructors  with  the  design  and  construction  of 
ships  and  engines.  The  value  of  the  training  for  these  officers  cannot 
be  overestimated,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  constructors,  as  the 
graduates  that  select  this  corps  are  usually  among  the  higher  men  of 
their  class.  With  regard  to  the  other  corps,  the  line  officers  and  com- 

*  The  School  of  Application  for  the  artillery  and  engineers,  now  at  Fontaiuebleau. 


108  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

rnissariat,  each  of  which  receives  a  mere  fragment  of  the  graduating 
class,  the  object  of  the  system  is  not  quite  apparent.  In  the  case  of  the 
line  officers,  it  is  chiefly  to  give  the  'Navy  a  few  men  peculiarly  fitted 
for  certain  forms  of  purely  scientific  work  which  arise  from  time  to  time 
in  the  service.  For  this  purpose  the  course  is  better  fitted  than  that  of 
the  Naval  School  at  Brest ;  though  it  is  doubtful,  even  with  this  differ- 
ence, whether  any  great  advantage  is  gained,  especially  in  the  case  of 
those  naval  graduates  of  the  Polytechnic  who  take  a  low  number  in 
their  class.  Certainly  the  difference  is  not  so  great  as  to  make  the  lower 
men  of  the  Polytechnic  classes  necessarily  more  available  for  scientific 
purposes,  during  their  whole  career,  than  the  best  men  from  the  Borda. 
At  the  close  of  the  Polytechnic  course,  the  graduates  who  have  se- 
lected the  Navy  as  their  future  career  are  embarked  on  board  the  prac- 
tice ship  Flore,  to  make  their  first  cruise,  in  company  with  the  graduates 
of  the  same  year  from  the  Borda.  Having  no  professional  training 
whatever,  they  start  at  a  disadvantage;  and  they  must  perform  double 
work  to  put  themselves  on  a  level  of  professional  acquirement  with 
their  contemporaries.  At  the  end  of  their  cruise  they  pass  their  exami- 
nation for  promotion  and  become  midshipmen  (aspirants  de  \ere  clause.) 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  NAVAL  SCHOOL  (Ecole  Navale). 

The  school  at  which  nearly  all  the  cadets  of  the  line  of  the  French 
receive  their  education  is  on  board  the  old  wooden  line-of-battle 
ship  Borda.  The  Borda  is  anchored  in  the  roads  of  Brest,  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  or  two  miles  from  the  town.  The  interior  d>f  the  ship  is  cut 
up  and  rearranged  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  school,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Britannia,  though  the  details  of  arrangement  in  the  Borda  are  quite  dif- 
ferent. The  poop  extends  to  to  the  main-mast,  and  contains  the  cabins 
of  the  commanding  officer,  although  the  latter  does  not  live  on  board. 
The  spar-deck  forward  of  the  poop  is  used  as  a  gymnasium.  The  comb, 
ings  of  the  main  hatchway  are  removed,  and  the  deck  flushed  over ;  and 
there  is  the  usual  supply  of  rings,  parallel  and  horizontal  bars,  &c., 
that  form  the  outfit  of  a  small  gymnasium.  On  the  upper  gun-deck  is 
the  mess-hall,  with  pantries  and  offices  forward.  The  students  sleep 
on  the  lower  gun-deck.  On  this  deck  are  also  the  two  study-rooms  (salles 
d'etude),  one  for  each  division.  All  these  rooms  are  forward  of  the  main- 
mast. In  the  after  part  of  the  ship,  on  the  two  gun-decks,  are  the  officers' 
quarters  and  wardroom,  and  also  the  lecture  rooms.  These  are  two  in 
number,  and  are  built  in  the  shape  of  amphitheaters,  the  floor  being  laid 
in  steps  rising  towards  the  back,  and  extending  from  the  lower  to  the 
upper  deck.  The  furniture  in  all  these  rooms  is  of  the  simplest  character, 
consisting  of  small  stationary  tables,  desks,  and  benches.  The  library 
is  small,  inconveniently  placed,  and  contains  few  recent  books.  The 
space  between  decks  in  the  room  devoted  to  this  purpose  is  too  small  to 
admit  of  standing  upright.  The  library  seems  to  be  little  used.  The 
battery  of  the  Borda  consists  of  B.  L.  R.  guns  of  the  most  recent  type,  of 
12,  14,  and  16  c.  m.  Two  corvettes  are  attached  to  the  establishment, 
one  a  sailing-vessel,  the  other  a  screw- steamer. 

1.— PERSONNEL. 

The  Naval  School,  like  all  other  adjuncts  of  the  station  at  Brest,  is 
under  the  general  authority  and  supervision  of  tiie  Prefet  Maritime  of 
the  II  arrondisseuient.  -  At  its  head  is  a  captain ;  next  in  rank  to  the 
captain  is  a  commander  (capitaine  defregate),  who  has  the  same  general 
duties  as  commanders  on  board  sea-going  vessels. 

The  authority  of  the  Prefet  Maritime  is  not  confined  to  mere  formali- 
ties. He  makes  all  the  administrative  arrangements  necessary  for  car- 
ryiug  on  the  working  of  the  school,  especially  those  in  regard  to  police 


110  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

and  interior  service.  He  makes  inspections  at  discretion,  but  lie  is  re- 
quired by  regulation  to  inspect  regularly  three  times  a  year — in  January, 
April,  and  August.  The  two  first  inspections  are  preceded  by  the  in- 
spections of  the  material  administration  of  the  school,  made  by  the 
commissary-general,  and  by  the  commissary  in  charge  of  equipments. 
Eeports  are  made  to  the  Ministry  of  Marine  of  the  result  of  each  of  these 
inspections.  In  regard  to  various  details  of  government  the  captain  fre- 
quently advises  with  the  Preset;  and,  finally,  the  latter  is  the  presiding 
member  of  the  board  of  improvement  (eonseil  de  perfectionnement). 

The  captain  of  the  Borda  is  the  director  of  the  studies  of  the  school 
as  well  as  of  the  discipline.  The  commander,  or  executive  officer,  has 
charge  of  the  interior  police  and  service,  of  the  conduct  of  students,  and 
of  practical  and  professional  instruction.  He  keeps  a  conduct  book  and 
a  punishment  book,  and  gives  the  students  a  mark  for  conduct  every 
quarter.  With  instruction  in  the  scientific  and  miscellaneous  branches 
he  has  nothing  to  do,  the  instructors  in  these  branches  being  wholly 
under  the  direction  of  the  captain. 

The  instructors  consist  of  eight  lieutenants,  twelve  professors,  and 
one  principal  mechanician.  The  lieutenants  have  charge  of  the  courses 
in  seamanship,  naval  architecture,  gunnery,  and  practical  navigation, 
there  being  two  for  each  branch,  one  taking  the  upper  and  one  the  lower 
cla>ss.  Four  of  the  lieutenants  act  as  chiefs  of  sections  (chefs  d'escouades) 
and  keep  a  constant  and  careful  oversight  of  the  members  of  their  sec- 
tions. They  transmit  orders  to  their  respective  sections,  and  receive  com- 
plaints or  requests  from  them.  It  is  their  duty  to  regulate  all  those  minor 
matters  of  detail,  pertaining  to  the  daily  life  of  the  pupils,  that  are  not 
covered  by  general  instructions.  A  close  personal  relation  is  thus  estab- 
lished between  the  members  of  each  section  and  their  chief.  He  sees 
that  all  articles  in  their  possession,  such  as  clothing  and  books,  are 
properly  kept  and  cared  for,  and  that  they  have  no  unauthorized  objects. 
He  keeps  their  weekly  allowance  books,  and,  in  case  of  permission  to 
incur  extra  expenses,  for  special  instruction  or  what  not,  he  is  required 
to  certify  that  the  lessons  have  been  properly  given,  or  that  the  articles 
purchased  have  been  duly  received.  Of  course  these  duties  involve 
frequent  inspection  and  constant  personal  intercourse;  and  the  chief 
of  section  is  the  person  to  whom  the  student  naturally  looks  for  advice 
and  assistance,  and  who  is  to  aid  and  stimulate  his  efforts  to  perfect  him- 
self as  a  naval  officer.  The  other  lieutenants  perform  the  ordinary  duties 
of  officer  of  the  day ;  but  all  of  them,  including  the  chiefs  of  sections, 
have  a  share  in  the  regular  detail  of  the  ship's  duties;  and  all  have  to 
note  delinquencies  on  the  part  of  the  students  and  to  enforce  the  discip- 
line of  the  ship.  They  can  only  inflict  reprimands ;  cases  requiring  se- 
verer punishment  must  be  referred  to  the  captain  or  commander.  The 
senior  lieutenant  is  in  charge  of  the  two  auxiliary  vessels ;  the  instructor 
in  practical  navigation  has  the  direction  of  the  observatory  on  shore; 
while  a  third  lieutenant  is  charged  with  the  small-arm  practice. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  Ill 

The  twelve  professors  at  the  Naval  School  are  divided  as  follows : 

Professors  of  analysis  and  mechanics 2 

Professors  of  astronomy  and  navigation 2 

Professor  of  physics  and  chemistry 1 

Professors  of  literature,  history,  and  geography 2 

Professors  of  English 3 

Professors  of  drawing  2 

The  professors  do  not  reside  on  board  the  ship,  but  are  brought  off 
from  shore  every  morning  in  a  small  steamer  attached  to  the  school,  in 
time  for  the  morning  lecture. 

The  other  officers  of  the  school  are,  a  principal  mechanician,  instructor 
in  steam-engineering ;  a  chaplain ;  an  assistant  commissary,  who  has 
charge  of  all  administrative  matters  other  than  military  or  academic  5 
three  surgeons  ;  and  an  accounting  officer  and  storekeeper  (agent  comp- 
table  econome).  The  latter  officer  has  the  direction  of  a  variety  of  mat- 
ters, such  as  the  care  of  public  property,  the  preparation  of  estimates 
for  stores  and  materials,  receipts,  disbursements,  and  purchases,  and  the 
correspondence  of  the  captain  of  the  school  with  the  parents  of  pupils. 

To  the  list  of  officers  should  perhaps  be  added  the  members  of  the  two 
boards  of  examination,  whose  functions  are  subsidiary  to  the  main  pur- 
pose of  the  school,  though  the  members  are  not  attached  to  the  Borda. 
One  of  these  boards  conducts  the  examination  for  admission,  the  other 
the  annual  and  final  examinations.  The  latter  board  is  composed  of 
naval  officers  of  high  rank,  together  with  a  member  of  the  corps  of  hy- 
drographic  examiners.  The  pharmacist-in-chief  at  Brest  usually  exam- 
ines in  chemistry. 

The  crew  of  the  Borda  numbers  about  150  men.  The  warrant  and 
petty  officers  are  carefully  selected  by  the  captain  of  the  Borda,  and  six 
or  eight  of  them,  in  addition  to  their  regular  duties,  assist  in  the  in- 
struction of  the  students  in  practical  exercises  connected  with  the  spe- 
cialties to  which  they  belong.  These  special  branches  include  seaman- 
ship and  gunnery,  and  the  specialties  of  helmsmen,  topmen,  machinists, 
and  captain  of  arms.  A  similar  number  of  non-commissioned  officers 
of  the  marine  artillery  (adjudants)  perform  the  details  of  disciplinary 
service.  At  their  head  is  the  captain  of  arms,  and  the  whole  force 
comes  directly  under  the  executive  officer.  Their  duties  include  the 
hourly  oversight  of  the  pupils,  the  frequent  inspection  of  their  desks, 
chests,  and  lockers,  and  of  all  their  belongings,  and  duty  as  watchmen 
by  day  and  by  night.  They  are  directed  to  enforce  the  regulations  of 
discipline,  and  to  report  all  infractions.  In  fact,  in  all  matters  of  detail 
they  perform  the  police  of  the  ship. 

There  are  four  boards  or  committees  that  occupy  an  important  place 
in  the  organization  of  the  school.  The  first  of  these  is  the  committee 
on  improvements  (conseil  de  perfectionnement.}  It  is  composed  of  the  Pre"- 
fet  Maritime,  as  president;  the  captains  of  the  Borda  and  of  the  Flore, 
the  sea-going  practice-ship  of  cadets;  and  the  members  of  the  two  ex- 


112  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

amining  boards,  of  admission  and  graduation.  It  meets  annually,  revises 
the  programme  of  study,  and  considers  and  proposes  other  changes  in 
the  organization  and  methods  of  the  school.  These  changes  are  sub- 
mitted for  approval  to  the  Board  of  Admiralty  (eonseil  d'amiraute)  at 
the  Ministry  of  Marine. 

The  council  of  instruction  or  academic  board  (eonseil  d?  instruction)  is 
composed  of  the  captain  and  commander  of  the  Borda,  the  two  examining 
boards,  three  professors  or  instructors,  appointed  for  one  year  by  the  Pr6- 
fet,  of  whom  one  is  in  the  professional,  one  in  the  scientific,  and  one  in  the 
literary  or  "general"  department,  and  the  commissary.*  The  duties 
of  the  board  are  to  consider  and  report  upon  measures  proposed  by  the 
secondary  council,  or  referred  to  it  by  the  Minister.  The  latter  include 
the  distribution  of  scholarships  (bourses),  and  of  indemnities  for  outfit. 

The  secondary  council  of  instruction  (eonseil  secondaire  d? instruction) 
is  composed  of  the  same  members  as  the  council  of  instruction,  except 
the  examining  boards.  It  acts  as  an  advisory  board  to  the  Prefet  Mar- 
itime and  the  captain  of  the  school,  by  whom  various  questions  relating 
to  academic  organization  are  submitted  to  it.  It  has  also  the  initiative 
in  all  propositions  relating  to  the  instruction  and  course  of  study,  and  it 
conducts  the  re-examination  of  deficient  pupils,  making  recommenda- 
tions as  to  the  final  disposition  of  doubtful  cases.  It  considers  propo- 
sals for  the  purchase  of  scientific  works,  periodicals,  and  apparatus. 
Its  other  duties  include  the  preparation  of  the  term  and  yearly  class- 
lists,  and,  in  general,  it  attends  to  those  matters  of  detail  which  concern 
the  academic  interests  of  the  school.  The  captain  of  the  school  is  pres- 
ident of  the  council,  and  any  of  the  instructors  or  professors  who  are 
not  members  may  be  required  to  attend  its  discussions,  but  only  with  a 
consulting  voice. 

The  fourth  of  the  governing  boards  is  the  council  of  administration 
(eonseil  $  administration).  It  is  composed  of  the  captain  and  commander, 
the  commissary,  and  the  two  senior  lieutenants,  chiefs  of  sections.  It 
keeps  the  running  account  with  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  and  with  the 
pupils,  and  it  has  general  charge  of  receipts,  disbursements,  and  pur- 
chases. The  "accounting  officer  and  storekeeper"  (econome)  acts  as  its 

agent. 

2. — EXAMINATION  FOR  ADMISSION. 

The  examination  for  admission  to 'the  Naval  School  is  one  of  the  most 
important  parts  of  the  French  system  of  naval  education,  on  account  of 
its  scope,  its  method,  and  its  close  relation  to  the  system  of  public  in- 
struction in  the  country.  It  is  competitive  in  character.  Its  require- 
ments are  high  and  extend  over  a  considerable  range  of  subjects.  Fi- 
nally, it  is  based  directly  on  the  programmes  of  study  in  the  lycees,  the 
principal  schools  for  secondary  instruction  in  France.  It  has  several 

*  It  must  constantly  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  word  commissary  denotes  a  member 
of  the  administrative  corps  of  the  Navy,  and  has  no  connection  with  what  in  English 
is  understood  as  the  commissariat. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  113 

other  noticeable  feature.*,  but  it  is  to  these  three  that  its  important  effects 
are  chiefly  due. 

The  method  of  organization  is  simple.  The  examining  board  consists 
of  four  examiners,  chosen  each  year  by  the  Minister  of  Marine,  two  in 
scientific,  and  two  in  literary  or  general  subjects.  A  captain  in  the 
Navy  is  president  of  the  board,  but  his  duties  are  confined  to  adminis- 
trative matters.  Junior  officers  are  assigned  to  take  charge  of  the  ex- 
amination-room. A  special  examiner  is  appointed  to  mark  the  drawings 
handed  in  by  candidates. 

The  examination  is  in  two  parts,  written  and  oral.  The  written  ex- 
amination is  held  first,  and  candidates  are  required  to  obtain  a  certain 
mark — 35  per  cent,  in  mathematics,  25  per  cent,  in  literary  subjects,  and 
15  per  cent,  in  drawing.  Those  who  fail  to  reach  this  standard  are  ex- 
cluded from  further  competition.  To  save  candidates  the  expense  of  a 
long  journey,  the  simple  and  excellent  method  is  adopted  of  having 
different  centers  of  examination,  at  any  one  of  which  candidates  may 
present  themselves.  The  centers  are  ten  in  number — Paris,  Brest, 
Cherbourg,  Lorient,  Rochefort,  Toulouse,  Toulon,  Bastia  (Corsica), 
Algiers,  and  Lyons.  At  these  places  written  examinations  are  held 
simultaneously  on  the  llth,  12th,  and  13th  of  June  in  each  year.  As 
most  of  the  places  designated  are  naval  stations,  or  stations  where  a 
number  of  naval  officers  are  constantly  on  duty  (all,  in  fact,  except 
Lyons  and  Toulouse),  the  service  of  conducting  the  written  examination 
is  attended  with  no  special  expense  to  the  government. 

Useful  as  this  system  is  found  in  France,  its  advantages  would  be 
even  greater  in  the  United  States,  on  account  of  the  immense  distances 
to  be  passed  over  by  candidates  from  all  the  Congressional  districts, 
in  reaching  any  given  point.  At  present  it  happens,  and  under  the 
existing  system  it  must  continue  to  happen,  not  infrequently,  that 
young  men  whose  means  do  not  warrant  the  expense  are  obliged  to 
take  a  journey  of  1,500  or  3,000  miles  to  present  themselves  at  an  ex- 
amination which  they  are  totally  unprepared  to  pass.  The  only  way 
to  avoid  this  is  by  holding  examinations  simultaneously  at  different 
centers.  The  principal  navy-yards  furnish  convenient  points,  with  all 
the  materials  ready  at  hand.  In  this  way  Boston  and  Portsmouth 
would  be  centers  for  New  England;  New  York  and  Philadelphia  for  the 
Middle  States ;  Annapolis,  Norfolk,  Port  Royal,  and  Pensacola  for  the 
Southeast,  and  San  Francisco  for  the  extreme  West.  To  these  might 
be  added  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Saint  Louis,  and  New  Orleans  for  the 
center.  Such  a  system  would  present  great  advantages,  and  at  the 
same  time  be  easy  of  application  and  attended  with  little  or  no  expense. 

Persons  desiring  to  compete  in  the  examination  for  admission  to  the 
Naval  School  are  obliged  to  enter  their  names  as  candidates  at  the  pre- 
fecture of  the  department  in  which  they  reside,  between  the  1st  and  25th 
of  April,  preceding  the  examination  at  which  they  intend  to  present 
themselves.  They  must  be  at  least  fourteen,  and  not  more  than  seven- 
S.  Ex.  51 8 


134  NAVAL  EDUCATION FEANCE. 

teen,  years  of  age  on  the  1st  of  January  preceding  their  application. 
This  condition  is  rigorously  applied,  and  no  dispensations  are  ever 
granted  to  candidates  above  or  below  the  limits.  The  average  age  of" 
candidates  admitted  has  been  found  to  be  about  16  years.  At  the  time 
of  entering  their  names,  candidates  are  required  to  present  the  following 
papers : 

1.  Certificate  of  birth. 

2.  Certificate  of  French  nationality. 

3.  Physician's  certificate  of  vaccination. 

4.  Choice  of  center  of  examination. 

5.  Bond  of  parent  or  guardian  for  payment  of  fee  for  board  and 
tuition,  amounting  to  700  francs  a  year. 

6.  Bond  of  parent  or  guardian  for  payment  of  outfit,  amounting  to 
about  1,000  francs. 

The  regulations  for  conducting  the  written  examinations  are  pre- 
scribed with  considerable  minuteness,  particularly  with  a  view  to  prevent 
irregularity  or  unfairness  in  marking.  The  questions  are  the  same  at 
all  the  centers  of  examination.  They  are  sent  in  sealed  envelopes  from 
the  Ministry  of  Marine  to  the  prefects  and  subprefects  in  whose  juris- 
diction the  examination  is  to  be  held,  and  by  whom  they  are  transmit- 
ted to  the  naval  officers  in  charge  of  the  examination. 

The  examinations  are  held  with  closed  doors,  at  the  day  and  hour  pre- 
scribed. Not  more  than  twenty  candidates  can  be  placed  in  one  room, 
and  warrant  officers  are  detailed  for  the  surveillance  of  these  rooms  ;  at 
least  one  to  every  ten  candidates.  At  the  beginning  of  each  day's  ses- 
sion the  officer  in  charge  opens  the  envelope  in  the  presence  of  the  can- 
didates, and  reads  aloud  the  questions.  At  the  close  of  the  session  he 
collects  the  papers  and  transmits  them  to  the  ministry  of  marine.  Here 
the  duties  of  this  officer  cease.  The  papers  are,  sent  to  the  president  of 
the  board  of  examiners,  who  detaches  the  headings  containing  the  name 
of  the  writer,  after  having  placed  on  both  headings  and  papers  a  corre- 
sponding series  of  numbers.  In  this  condition,  numbered,  but  not  named, 
the  papers  are  turned  over  to  the  proper  examiners  to  be  marked.  When 
the  marking  is  finished,  the  board  meets  and  draws  up  a  list,  still  with- 
out the  names  of  candidates,  of  the  marks  given  to  each  numbered  paper. 
The  president  then  opens,  in  the  presence  of  the  board,  the  sealed  en- 
velope in  which  he  had  previously  placed  the  headings,  and  the  final 
report  of  the  written  examination  is  drawn  up.  This  is  published  in  the 
Journal  Officiel,  and  is  the  only  notification  received  by  the  candidates 
of  their  success  or  failure  at  the  preliminary  examination. 

The  oral  examinations  follow  immediately  upon  the  written.  Like  the 
first,  they  are  held  at  various  cities,  the  board  of  examiners  making  a 
tour  for  this  purpose.  The  places  of  the  examination  are  the  same  as 
before,  except  in  the  case  of  Bastia  and  Algiers,  candidates  from  Corsica 
and  Algeria  presenting  themselves  at  Toulon.  The  first  examination  is 
held  at  Paris,  July  1,  and  at  the  other  cities  in  succession.  Each  caudi- 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  115 

date  must  pass  a  medical  examination  before  a  board  composed  of  the 
president  of  the  examining  board,  a  commander,  and  a  naval  surgeon. 
This  always  precedes  the  oral  examination.  Candidates  who  have  failed 
at  the  written  examination,  or  who  have  absented  themselves  from  any  of 
the  tests,  or  who  have  made  use  of  any  improper  means  of  assistance, 
are  ruled  out  before  the  oral  examination  begins. 

The  final  classification  is  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  jury  of 
examination,  composed  of  the  examining  board,  together  with  two  naval 
officers  of  high  rank,  sitting  at  Paris.  The  marks,  ranging,  according 
to  the  usual  scale  in  France,  from  0  to  20,  are  multiplied  by  the  pre- 
scribed coefficients,  and  the  sum  of  the  products  gives  the  final  mark. 
In  case  two  candidates  have  the  same  mark,  the  oral  examination  decides 
their  final  position ;  and  if  the  result  is  still  the  same,  greater  weight  is 
given  to  the  scientific  branches.  Thirty  additional  marks  are  given  to 
candidates  who  have  taken  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  letters.  From  the 
final  list  the  minister  appoints  the  members  of  the  entering  class  at  the 
naval  school  in  the  order  of  classification,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
number  required.  A  letter  is  accordingly  sent  to  each  successful  can- 
didate, which  he  is  to  present  to  the  major-general  (chief  of  naval  staff) 
on  his  arrival  at  Brest,  before  the  beginning  of  the  session.  After  a 
second  medical  examination,  and  after  making  the  necessary  deposit, 
he  is  regularly  entered  at  the  school. 

The  scope  of  the  examination  for  admission  is  defined  in  the  pro- 
grammes of  certain  classes  in  the  lycees.  These  are  the  principal  pub- 
lic schools  in  France  of  a  general  character,  and  they  are  so  closely 
connected  with  the  special  schools  for  professional  training  that  some 
further  allusion  to  them  will  be  necessary.  The  subjects  of  the  exami- 
nation, with  the  coefficients  of  each,  are  as  follows : 

1. — GENERAL  SUBJECTS  (Partie  Litteralre). 

I. — Written  examination  : 

Coefficients. 

French  composition 5 

Latin  translation,  with  dictionary 3 

English  (without  dictionary) 3 

11 
II. — Oral  examination  : 

History 5 

Geography 5 

French 6 

Latiu 4 

Greek* 2 

English 7 

29 


Total :  General  subjects 40 

"After  1880,  Greek  is  to  be  omitted  from  the  programme,  and  Statics  is  to  be  added. 


116  NAVAL    EDUCATION — FRANCE. 

2. — MATHEMATICS  (Partie  Sdentifique.) 

I. — Written  examination  : 

Arithmetic  and  Geometry 8 

Algebra  and  Trigonometry 5 

Descriptive  Geometry 4 


17 
II. — Oral  examination  : 

Arithmetic i> 

Algebra 8 

Geometry 11 

Trigonometry 5 

Descriptive  Geometry 6 


39 


Total :  Mathematics 56 

3. — DRAWING. 


Sketch  of  a  head 


Aggregate ., 100 

Handwriting  and  spelling  are  taken  into  account  in  marking  the  papers. 

The  detailed  programmes  in  each  subject  are  prescribed  by  the  min- 
istry of  public  instruction  for  the  schools.  These  schools  are  of  two 
kinds,  lycees  and  communal  colleges,  and  it  is  at  one  or  the  other  of 
these  that  candidates  for  the  N^al  School  are  expected  to  prepare  for 
the  examination.  The  recorded  candidates  preparing  at  the  public 
schools  were  thus  distributed  in  1876  : 

LYC&E8. 

Henri  IV  (Paris) 1 

St.  Louis  (Paris) 2 

Amiens 1 

Bordeaux 8 

Brest 106 

Dijon 1 

Grenoble 1 

Lille 2 

Lorieut 21 

Rouen 1 

Toulon..                                                                                         7 


151 
COMMUNAL  COLLEGES. 

Cherbourg 34 

Dieppe 3 

Rochefort, 30 


67 


Total  in  public  schools 218 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  117 

These  figures  show  how  great  a  part  the  public  schools  play  in  pre- 
paring candidates  for  the  Naval  School,  especially  those  of  the  five 
naval  ports,  which  furnish  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  number.  As  far  as 
instruction  goes,  both  lycees  and  colleges  may  be  classed  together, 
though  the  latter  are  usually  less  completely  organized  and  provided 
with  a  less  numerous  staff  of  instructors  ;  but  in  general  they  follow  the 
programme  of  the  lycees  as  far  as  they  can.  This  includes  nine  regular 
classes,  with  a  division  (bifurcation)  in  the  programme,  above  the  second 
class,  for  students  who  desire  to  confine  their  attention  more  particularly 
either  to  science  or  to  literature  and  philosophy.  The  higher  classes 
are  known  as  the  classes  of  elementary  mathematics  and  the  higher 
mathematics,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  j  on  the 
other.  The  highest  classes  reach  a  standard  as  high  as  that  of  the  sopho- 
more class  at  our  highest  universities,  or  of  the  senior  class  at  many  of 
our  colleges.  Leaving  out  the  last  two  years,  the  French  schools  corre- 
spond nearly  to  our  best  Latin  and  high  schools.  They  are  admirably 
organized  and  carefully  inspected ;  their  methods  of  instruction  and  pro- 
grammes of  study  are  based  on  sound  principles,  and  they  produce  the 
best  results.  Of  course  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  a  professional  school 
to  be  able  to  draw  its  pupils  from  such  a  source,  and  thus  to  be  assured 
that  they  have  a  preliminary  training  at  once  broad,  thorough,  and  com- 
plete. There  is  no  greater  drag  to  the  efficiency  of  an  institution  for 
higher  education  than  the  want  of  good  fitting  schools — a  want  such  as 
is  felt  at  the  present  moment  at  our  Military  and  Naval  Academies,  and 
nowhere  felt  more  severely.  This  want  in  France  is  supplied  to  the  full- 
est extent  and  in  the  most  satisfactory  way.  The  great  national  schools, 
including  the  Polytechnic,  Saint-Cyr,  the  normal  school,  and  the  naval 
school  at  Brest,  receive  the  great  majority  of  their  pupils  from  the  best 
schools  that  exist  in  the  country.  They  are  thus  enabled  to  make  the 
qualifications  for  admission  high,  to  do  away  with  all  those  elementary 
branches  of  instruction  that  form  no  proper  part  of  the  work  of  a  pro- 
fessional school,  and  to  concentrate  the  energies  of  their  pupils  upon 
studies  of  a  high  character,  connected  more  or  less  directly  with  the 
profession  in  view.  The  high  standard  of  admission  and  the  competitive 
examinations  are  not  productive  of  cramming ;  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  far  less  so  than  a  lower  standard  would  be,  even  in  a  test  examina- 
tion, where  the  preparation  is  given  in  inferior  schools,  with  a  month  or 
a  fortnight  of  private  tuition  just  before  the  examination.  At  the  ex- 
amination for  admission  at  Annapolis,  limited  as  it  is  in  scope  and  trifling 
as  are  the  subjects  that  compose  it,  a  large  number  of  the  weaker  can- 
didates are  prepared  by  this  latter  process.  In  France,  where  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  examination  is  based  directly  on  that  of  the  schools — in 
fact,  is  identical  with  it  in  most  subjects — there  is  no  such  difficulty. 
There  is  no  need  of  private  tuition ;  a  candidate  who  wants  to  pass  the 
examination  cannot  do  better  than  attend  the  regular  school  course 
that  leads  up  to  it ;  and  even  in  the  case  of  a  pupil  who  is  weak  in  one 


118  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

of  the  required  branches,  the  school  system  is  sufficiently  flexible  to 
admit  a  slight  modification  in  his  favor. 

The  programmes  of  the  lyce"es  that  define  the  requirements  for  admis- 
sion to  the  Naval  School  are  given  below  in  the  form  in  which  they  ap- 
pear in  the  circular  published  for  the  information  of  candidates.  Speci- 
mens of  the  questions  given  at  the  written  and  oral  examination  are 
given  in  the  Appendix.* 

FRENCH. 

Programme  of  third  class  and  of  the  grammar  classes  (4t/j,  5th,  and  6th). 

French  grammar :  Study  of  the  French  language  and  literature ;  explanation  and 
recitation  of  French  authors.  Designated  works :  La  Fontaine,  Fables ;  Fe"nelon, 
Te"le"maque;  Voltaire,  Charles  XII;  Montesquieu,  Grandeur  et  Decadence  des  Re- 
mains. 

LATIN. 

Third  class  and  grammar  classes. 

Latin  grammar:  Explanation  and  recitation  upon  Latin  authors.  Authors  designated: 
Caesar,  Gallic  war ;  Virgil,  JLneid,  I,  II,  and  III  books. 

GREEK. 

Third  class  and  grammar  classes. 

Greek  grammar :  Explanation  and  recitation  upon  Greek  authors.  Authors  designated : 
Xenophon,  Anabasis,  or  Expedition  of  Cyrus. 

ENGLISH. 

Third  class. 

Grammar:  Revision  of  syntax ;  idioms;  proverbs;  general  rules  of  prosody. 
Exercises:  Explanation  and  recitation;  exercises  of  conversation;  money,  weights, 

and  measures  of  England  taught  in  English. 
Authors  designated:   W.  Irving,  Christopher  Columbus  (abridged  by  the  author); 

Macaulay,  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

HISTORY. 
Third  class. 

History  of  Europe  from  the  fifth  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  (395-1270). 

Gaul  under  the  Roman  Empire :  Invasion  of  the  Barbarians ;  the  Germans,  their  es- 
tablishments in  Italy,  the  States  they  founded. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Franks :  Cloris,  Brunehaut,  Dagobert;  conquests  in  Germany; 
government  and  institutions;  the  Salic  law. 

Justinian  ;  his  wars  and  legislative  work. 

Mahomet :  Conquests  of  the  Arabs ;  high  character  of  the  Arabic  civilization. 

Pepin  d'Heristal ;  Charles  Martel ;  Pepin  the  Short. 

Charlemagne;  his  wars  and  his  government.  Re-establishment  of  the  empire.  Louis 
le  De"bonuaire.  Treaty  of  Verdun.  Charles  the  Bald.  The  Normans.  Dismem- 
berment of  the  empire  into  kingdoms  and  of  France  into  great  tiefs. 

The  feudal  system.     State  of  the  church  in  the  tenth  century. 

The  Empire.  Otto  the  Great.  The  quarrel  of  investitures.  Gregory  VII.  Innocent 
III  and  Innocent  IV.  Frederick  Barbarossa  and  Frederick  II. 

•Note  H. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  119 

Norman  conquest  of  England.     Henry  II.     Magna  Charta. 

The  Crusades.    The  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople, 

Progress  of  royal  power  in  France.     Enfranchisement  of  the  communes.     Louis  VI. 

Philip  Augustus.     War  of  the  Albigenses.     Reign  of  Saint  Louis. 
Arts,  letters,  and  schools  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  ;  commerce  and  in- 

dustry. 
Tabular  summary  of  the  different  States  of  Europe  in  1270. 

NOTE.  —  Ancient  history  is  studied  in  the  lower  classes  of  the  Lyce"es  ;  modern  his- 
tory (after  1270)  in  the  higher  classes.  The  historical  course  at  the  Naval  School 
corresponds  to  the  latter  course. 

GEOGRAPHY. 
Third 


Physical,  political,  and  statistical  geography  of  Europe  (omitting  France). 

Configuration  of  Europe.  Extreme  longitude  and  latitude.  Oceans  that  bound 
Europe;  gulfs  and  straits  ;  islands;  peninsulas  and  capes  ;  description  of  the  coasts, 
Geological  formation;  mountain  system;  chains  and  peaks;  principal  summits, 
plateaux  and  plains.  General  direction  of  water-courses.  Basins,  rivers,  streams, 
lakes.  Isothermal  lines,  maritime  and  inland  climates,  winds  and  rains.  Races, 
languages,  religion. 

British  Isles  :  Rapid  review  of  the  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation  ;  surface, 
configuration,  and  limits  ;  great  divisions.  Principal  cities.  Agriculture  (cereals, 
industrial  products,  pasturage,  cattle  raising).  Fisheries.  Mines  (coal  and  iron). 
Metallurgical  (iron  and  steel)  and  textile  industries.  Canals  and  railways.  Navi- 
gation. Commerce.  Government  and  administration.  Army  and  navy.  Budget 
and  debt.  Population.  Possessions  in  Europe.  Colonies. 

Netherlands.  —  Rapid  review  of  the  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation  ;  sur- 
face, configuration,  and  boundaries  ;  provinces.  Principal  cities.  Agriculture 
(dikes  and  polders).  Fisheries.  Canals  and  railways.  Navigation.  Commerce. 
Government  and  administration.  Population.  Colonies. 

Grand-duchy  of  Luxembourg.  —  Mines  and  commerce.  Government  and  administra- 
tion. 

Ger  i  any.  —  Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation  ;  surface,  configura- 
tion, and  boundaries.  Kingdom  of  Prussia  and  its  old  and  new  provinces.  Sec- 
ondary states.  Principal  cities.  Agriculture.  Fisheries.  Mines.  Metallurgical 
and  textile  industries.  Canals  and  railways.  Navigation.  Commerce.  Govern- 
ment and  administration.  Germanic  Confederation  of  1815.  Zollverein.  North 
German  Confederation  of  1866.  German  Empire  of  1871.  Army,  navy,  and  finances. 
Population. 

Austria-Hungary.  —  Review  of  its  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation  ;  surface, 
configuration,  and  boundaries  ;  provinces  and  countries  included  in  it.  Principal 
cities.  Agriculture.  Mines.  Industries.  Railways.  Coast  and  river  navigation. 
Commerce.  Government  and  administration.  Army  and  finances.  Population. 
Races  and  languages. 

Switzerland.  —  Review  of  its  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation;  surface,  con- 
figuration, and  boundaries.  German,  French,  and  Italian  cantons.  Principal  cities. 
Agriculture.  Commerce.  Means  of  transit.  Government  and  administration. 
Population. 

Portugal.  —  Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation;  surface;  configura- 
tion, and  boundaries.  Ancient  division  into  provinces.  Principal  cities.  Agri- 
culture. Industry.  Commerce.  Government  and  administration.  Population. 
Colonies. 

Spain.  —  Review  of  physical  geography.     Territorial  formation  ;  surface,  configuration, 


120  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

and  boundaries.  Ancient  division  into  kingdoms  and  provinces.  Principal  cities. 
Agriculture.  Industry.  Commerce.  Mines.  Means  of  transit.  Government  and 
administration.  Population.  Colonies.  Republic  of  Andorra. 

Italy. — Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation.  Ancient  division  into 
States.  Surface,  configuration,  and  boundaries.  Countries  and  provinces.  Princi- 
pal cities.  Agriculture.  Mines.  Industries.  Railways.  Navigation.  Commerce. 
Government  and  administration.  Army  and  finances.  Population.  Republic  of 
San  Marino. 

Greece. — Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation ;  surface,  configuration, 
and  boundaries.  Mainland,  Archipelago  and  Ionian  Isles.  Principal  cities.  Agri- 
culture. Navigation.  Commerce.  Government  and  administration.  Population. 

Turkey  in  Europe. — Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation,  surface, 
and  boundaries  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa.  Great 
divisions  of  Turkey  in  Europe ;  Archipelago,  and  Candia.  Principal  cities.  Agri- 
culture. Navigation.  Commerce.  Government  and  administration.  Population. 
Races  and  religions. 

Principalities  of  Roumauia,  Servia,  and  Montenegro. — Review  of  physical  geography. 
Principal  cities.  Agriculture.  Navigation  of  the  Lower  Danube.  Commerce.  Gov- 
ernment and  administration. 

Russia. — Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation,  surface,  configuration, 
and  boundaries  of  the  Russian  Empire  in  Europe  and  in  Asia.  Great  divisions  of 
Russia  in  Europe.  Principal  cites.  Agriculture.  Fisheries.  Mines.  Industry. 
Railways.  Sea-coast  and  interior  navigation.  Commerce.  Government  and  ad- 
ministration. Army,  navy,  and  finances.  Population. 

Norway  and  Sweden. — Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation ;  surface, 
configuration,  and  boundaries.  Principal  cities.  Great  divisions.  Agriculture. 
Fisheries.  Mines.  Canals  and  railways.  Navigation.  Commerce,  government 
and  administration.  Population. 

Denmark. — Review  of  physical  geography.  Territorial  formation ;  surface,  configura- 
tion, and  boundaries.  Principal  cities.  Agriculture.  Railways.  Navigation.  Com- 
merce. Government  and  administration.  Population.  Iceland,  Faroe  Islands,  and 
colonies. 

General  review. — Comparison  of  the  extent  aud  resources  of  different  States.  Weights, 
measures,  and  money.  Density  of  population.  Military  forces. 

(Demonstration  and  exercises  at  the  black-board  and  wall-map.     Map  drawing.) 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  FRANCE. 
Fourth  class. 

Configuration  and  dimensions  of  France  ;  surface ;  extreme  latitude  and  longitude. 

Seas  and  coasts;  gulfs,  islands,  peninsulas,  capes,  dunes,  rocks  and  shoals,  salt 
marshes,  lagoons,  principal  ports,  sea  and  inland  frontiers,  territorial  losses  of 
France  in  1871. 

Contour.  Mountain  chains,  peaks  and  plateaux ;  altitude ;  perpetual  snows,  glaciers, 
torrents,  passes,  roads,  tunnels,  waters,  waterfalls,  and  basins ;  rivers  and  their  trib- 
utaries; canals;  lakes,  ponds,  marshes. 

Climate  and  principal  productions. 

Political  geography.  Ancient  provinces,  with  their  capitals.  Departments  by  prov- 
inces, and  departments  by  basins ;  their  principal  cities ;  other  important  cities. 

Principal  railways.    Population.     Colonies. 

(Demonstration  and  exercises  at  the  black-board  and  wall-map.  Map  drawing. 
Study  of  the  military  map  of  France. ) 


ARITHMETIC. 

Third  class. 


Decimal  numeration. 

The  four  processes  with  whole  numbers. 

Decimals.    Processes  and  examples. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  121 

Characteristics  of  divisibility  by  2, 3, 5,  9,  and  11. 

Definition  of  prime  numbers  and  of  numbers  prime  to  each  other.     Resolution  of  a 

number  into  its  prime  factors  (no  theoretical  developments).     Greatest  common 

divisor  and  least  common  multiple. 
Common  fractions.     Reduction  of  fractions  to  lowest  terms  ;    reduction  to  fractions 

having  a  common  denominator.     Processes  with  fractions.     Conversion  of  common 

fractions  into  decimals. 

Square  and  square  root  of  whole  numbers  and  decimals. 
Metric  system. 
Ratio  and  proportion.    Ratio  of  two  magnitudes.    Proportional  magnitudes.   Problems 

upon  proportional  magnitudes.     Questions  of  interest  and  discount ;  formulas  for 

working  them  out. 

The  class  of  elementary  mathematics  reviews  the  third-class  programme,  completing 
it  by  a  few  lessons  on  the  properties  of  prime  numbers,  repeating  decimals,  and  the 
errors  arising  in  the  extraction  of  roots. 

ALGEBRA. 

Class  of  elementary  mathematics. 

Review  and  completion  of  the  second-class  programme  (see  below). 

Discussion  of  the  formulas  that  resolve  a  system  of  equations  of  the  first  degree  with 
two  unknown  quantities.  Examples. 

Equations  of  second  degree  with  one  unknown  quantity.  Double  solution.  Imagi- 
nary values. 

Properties  of  trinomials  of  the  second  degree. 

Questions  of  maxima  and  minima  which  may  be  resolved  by  equations  of  the  second 
degree. 

Principal  properties  of  arithmetical  and  geometrical  progressions. 

Theory  of  logarithms  deduced  from  progressions.  Logarithms  to  the  base  10.  Tables. 
Characteristics.  Introduction  of  negative  characteristics  to  extend  logarithmic  cal- 
culations to  numbers  less  than  1.*  Use  of  tables.  Compound  interest  and  annui- 
ties. Application  of  logarithms  to  these  question. 

Second  class. 

Algebraic  operations  (not  including  the  division  of  polynomials). 

Equations  of  the  first  degree.  Examples.  Equations  of  the  second  degree  with  one 
unknown  quantity.  Applications  to  some  of  the  problems  of  arithmetic  and  geom- 
etry. 

GEOMETRY. 

Tltird  class, 

Right  line  and  plane.  Broken  line.  Curved  Hue.  Angle.  Generation  of  angles  by 
the  rotation  of  a  right  line  about  one  of  its  points.  Right  angle. 

*  To  define  the  logarithms  of  numbers  less  than  1,  it  is  sufficient  to  extend  to  these 
numbers  the  fundamental  property  of  logarithms.  Let  a  be  a  numberless  than  1,  and 
let  P  =  a  x  10",  supposed  to  be  greater  than  or  at  least  equal  to  1.  P  will  have  a 
logarithm,  and  if  it  is  desired  to  extend  to  this  product  the  fundamental  property,  we 
shall  have — 

p 

log  a  or  log  -„  =  log  P  —  n. 

Thus  it  is  proper  to  call  the  logarithm  of  P,  diminished  by  n,  the  logarithm  of  a. 
In  reducing  this  to  a  single  characteristic,  it  is  evident  that  it  will  contain  a  number 
of  negative  units,  equal  to  the  position  that  the  first  significant  figure  of  a  occupies  to 
the  right  of  the  decimal  poiiit. 


122  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

Triangles.  Simple  cases  of  equality.  Properties  of  the  isosceles  triangle.  Cases  of 
equality  of  right-angled  triangles. 

Geometrical  position  of  points  equidistant  from  two  given  points.  Geometrical  posi- 
tion of  points  equidistant  from  two  intersecting  right  lines. 

Parallel  lines.  Sum  of  the  angles  of  a  triangle,  of  a  polygon.  Properties  of  parallel- 
ograms. 

The  circumference  of  the  circle.  Mutual  relations  of  arcs  and  chords,  of  chords  and 
their  distances  from  the  center.  Tangents.  Intersection  and  contact  of  two  cir- 
cles. Measurement  of  angles.  Inscribed  angles. 

Use  of  the  rule  and  compasses  in  construction,  on  paper.  Tracing  of  perpendiculars 
and  parallels  ;  use  of  the  triangle.  Determination  of  angles  in  degrees,  minutes,  and 
seconds.  Protractor. 

Elementary  problems  upon  the  construction  of  angles  and  triangles.  To  draw  a  tan- 
gent to  a  circle  through  a  given  point  without.  To  draw  a  tangent  parallel  to  a 
given  line.  To  draw  a  line  tangent  to  two  circles.  To  describe  on  a  given  line  a 
segment  which  shall  contain  a  given  angle. 

Measurement  of  areas.  Area  of  the  rectangle,  parallelogram,  triangle,  trapezoid;  of 
any  polygon.  Approximate  area  of  a  figure  bounded  by  any  curve  whatever.  The- 
orem of  the  square  described  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle.  Numer- 
ous numerical  applications. 

Elements  of  surveying.     Use  of  the  chain  and  the  surveyor's  square. 

Second  class. 
Proportional  lines. 

Similar  polygons.  Conditions  of  similarity  of  triangles.  Ratio  of  the  perimeters  of 
similar  polygons.  Relations  between  the  perpendicular  let  fall  from  the  right  angle 
of  a  right-angled  triangle  upon  the  hypotenuse,  the  segments  of  the  hypotenuse, 
the  hypotenuse  itself,  and  the  legs.  Theorem  relating  to  the  square  of  the  side  of 
a  triangle,  opposite  to  a  right  angle,  an  acute  angle,  or  an  obtuse  angle.  Theorem 
relating  to  the  secants  of  a  circle  passing  through  the  same  point. 

Problems:  to  divide  a  line  into  equal  parts,  into  parts  proportional  to  given  lengths  ; 
to  find  a  fourth  proportional  to  three  giv^n  lines,  a  mean  proportional  between  two 
given  lines  ;  to  construct  on  any  line  a  polygon  similar  to  a  given  polygon. 

Regular  polygons;  inscription  of  regular  polygons  in  a  circle;  square,  hexagon. 
Method  of  determining  the  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter;  applications. 
Area  of  a  regular  polygon  ;  of  a  circle,  of  a  circular  sector.  Ratio  of  the  areas  of 
two  similar  figures. 

The  plane  and  the  right  line  in  space.  Perpendiculars  and  ohliqne  lines  drawn  to  a 
plane.  Parallelism  of  right  lines  and  planes.  Dihedral  angles.  Perpendicular 
planes.  Elementary  notions  of  trihedral  and  polyhedral  angles. 

Construction  of  plans;  use  of  the  metric  scale,  the  semicircle,  square,  and  plane  table. 

Topographical  surveying ;  sea-level,  sight ;  method  of  describing  the  height  of  a 
point;  lines  of  level ;  interpretation  of  topographical  charts. 

Class  of  elementary  mathematics. 

The  course  begins  with  a  rapid  review  of  the  course  of  the  third  and  second  classes, 
amplifying  certain  points,  especially  in  regard  to  the  inscribing  of  regular  polygons 
(case  of  the  decagon)  and  the  determination  of  tlie  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the 
diameter  by  the  isoperimetrical  method.  The  review  is  finished  by  exercises  and 
problems  upon  the  comparison  of  areas ;  the  construction  of  a  square  equivalent  to  a 
given  polygon  ;  the  construction  of  a  square  whose  ratio  to  a  given  squjire  is  equal  to  the 
ratio  of  two  given  lines  ;  the  construction  of  a  rectangle  equivalent  to  a  given  square, 
the  sum  or  difference  of  whose  adjacent  sides  is  equal  to  a  given  sum  or  difference; 
applications  to  the  construction  of  roots  of  equations  of  the  second  degree  with  one 
ivnknown  quantity. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  123 

Geometry  in  space. 

The  plane  aud  the  right  line.  Conditions  in  order  that  a  right  line  may  be  perpendic- 
ular to  a  plane.  Properties  of  the  perpendicular  and  the  oblique  lines  drawn  from 
the  same  point  to  a  plane.  Parallelism  of  right  lines  and  of  planes. 

Dihedral  angles.  Generation  of  dihedral  angles  by  the  rotation  of  a  plane  about  a 
right  line.  Dihedral  right  angle.  Measurement  of  dihedral  angles. 

Properties  of  planes  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

Trihedral  angles.  Cases  of  equality  and  of  symmetry.  Properties  of  the  supplemen- 
tary trihedral  angle.  Limit  of  the  sum  of  the  faces  of  a  convex  polyhedral  angle. 
Limits  of  the  sum  of  the  dihedral  angles  of  a  trihedral  angle.  Analogies  and  differ- 
ences between|trihedral  angles  and  rectilinear  triangles. 

Polyhedrons.  The  prism,  parallelepiped,  cube,  pyramid.  Plane  and  parallel  sections 
of  the  prism  and  the  pyramid 

Measurement  of  volumes.  Volume  of  the  parallelepiped,  the  prism,  the  pyramid, 
the  frustum  of  a  pyramid,  and  the  frustum  of  a  triangular  prism. 

Symmetry  in  polyhedrons.  Plane  of  symmetry.  Center  of  symmetry.*  Comparison  of 
the  faces,  the  dihedral  angles,  the  homologous  polyhedral  angles  of  two  symmetri- 
cal pohyhedrons.  Equivalence  of  their  volumes. 

Similar  polyhedrons.  Cases  of  similitude  of  two  triangular  pyramids.  Ratio  of  the 
volumes  of  two  similar  polyhedrons,  similarly  placed. 

The  round  bodies. 

Right  cylinder  with  circular  base.  Measure  of  the  lateral  surface  and  of  the  volume ; 
extension  to  right  cylinders  with  any  base  whatever. 

Right  cone  with  circular  base.  Sections  parallel  to  the  base.  Convex  surface  and  vol- 
ume of  the  cone,  and  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone. 

Sphere.  Plane  sections ;  great  circles ;  small  circles.  Poles  of  a  circle.  Given  a  sphere, 
to  find  its  radius  by  a  plane  construction. 

Tangent  plane.     Angle  of  two  arcs  of  a  great  circle. 

Spherical  triangles.  Analogy  with  trihedral  angles.  Measure  of  the  surface  genera- 
ted by  a  line  turning  regularly  about  an  axis  drawn  in  its  plane  and  through  its 
center.  Area  of  the  zone  of  the  entire  sphere.  Exercises. 

Measure  of  the  volume  generated  by  a  triangle  turning  about  an  axis  drawn  in  its 
plane,  arid  through  one  of  its  angles.  Application  to  a  regular  polygonal  sector 
turning  about  an  axis  drawn  in  its  plane,  and  through  its  center.  Volume  of  a 
spherical  sector,  of  the  entire  sphere,  of  a  spherical  segment.  Exercises.  Approxi- 
mate volume  of  a  solid  bounded  by  any  surface  whatever. 

Properties  and  definitions  of  certain  curves. 

Definition  of  the  ellipse  by  the  properties  of  the  foci.  Drawing  of  the  curve  by  de- 
termining points,  and  by  a  continuous  motion.  Axes.  Vertices.  Radius  vector. 

General  definition  of  a  tangent  to  a  ciirve. 

The  radii  drawn  from  the  foci  to  any  point  of  the  ellipse  make  equal  angles  with 
the  tangent  at  this  point.  To  draw  a  tangent  to  the  ellipse  to  a  point  taken  on  the 
curve,  through  an  exterior  point.  Normal  of  the  ellipse. 

Definition  of  the  parabola  by  means  of  the  property  of  the  foci,  and  by  its  directrix. 
Tracing  of  the  curve  through  points,  and  with  a  continuous  motion.  Axis.  Vertex. 
Radius  vector. 

The  tangent  makes  equal  angles  with  the  line  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  the  radius 
vector,  drawn  through  the  point  of  contact.  To  draw  a  tangent  to  a  parabola 

*  The  study  of  symmetry  with  reference  to  a  point,  reduces  itself  to  that  of  symmetry 
with  reference  to  a  plane,  by  rotating  one  of  the  two  figures  through  an  angle  of  180°, 
about  an  axis  perpendicular  to  the  plane  and  passing  through  the  center  of  sym- 
metrv. 


124  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

through  a  point  taken  on  its  curve,  and  through  an  exterior  point.  Normal.  Sub- 
normal. 

Relation  between  the  square  of  an  ordiiiate  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  and  the  distance 
of  this  ordinate  from  the  vertex. 

Definition  of  the  helix,  considered  as  resulting  from. the  unrolling  of  the  plane  of  a 
right-angled  triangle  upon  a  right  cylinder  with  circular  base.  Distance  between 
the  turns  of  the  helix.  The  tangent  to  the  helix  makes  a  constant  angle  with  the 
side  of  the  cylinder.  To  construct  the  projection  of  the  helix  and  of  the  tangent 
upon  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  base  of  the  cylinder. 

PLANE  TRIGONOMETRY. 

Class  of  elementary  mathematics. 

Trigonometric  lines.  Relations  between  the  trigonometric  lines  of  the  angle.  Ex- 
pressions of  the  sine  and  the  cosine  as  a  function  of  the  tangent.  Formulas  relat- 
ing to  the  sine,  cosine,  and  tangents  of  the  sum  and  the  difference  of  two  arcs. 
Expressions  of  sin  2a,  cos  2a,  and  tang  2a.  Given  cos  a  or  sin  a,  to  calculate  sin  ^a 
and  cos  £a. 

To  adapt  the  sum  of  two  trigonometric  lines  to  calculations  by  logarithms;  e.  g.,  the 
sine,  cosine,  and  tangent.  Construction  of  trigonometric  tables.  Use  of  tables. 

Relation  between  the  angles  and  the  sides  of  a  right  triangle  or  of  any  triangle  what- 
ever. Resolution  of  right  triangles.  Resolution  of  any  triangles  whatever  in  the 
four  cases  that  may  present  themselves.  To  determine  the  area  of  a  triangle  as  a 
function  of  given  parts. 

Application  of  trigonometry  to  the  different  questions  presented  in  surveying  ;  dis- 
tance of  an  inaccessible  point.  Measurement  of  heights.  Three  point  problem. 

DESCRIPTIVE   GEOMETRY. 

Class  of  elementary  mathematics. 

Inadequacy  of  ordinary  drawing  for  the  representation  of  solid  bodies.  Usefulness  of 
a  geometric  method,  which,  by  graphic  operations  executed  on  one  and  the  same 
plane,  determines  exactly  the  form  and  the  position  of  a  figure  of  three  dimensions. 

Projection  of  a  point,  of  a  right  line,  of  any  line,  on  a  plane.  Plane  of  projection. 
Traces  of  a  plane.  Tme  length  of  a  line  that  joins  two  points  given  by  their  projec- 
tions. Angles  of  a  right  line  with  the  planes  of  projection.  Representation  of  a 
plane  by  its  traces.  Angles  made  by  a  plane  with  the  planes  of  projection. 

Method  of  revolutions.     Exercises. 

Intersection  of  two  planes.  Intersection  of  a  right  line  and  a  plane.  Distance  of  a 
point  from  a  plane.  Distance  of  a  point  from  a  right  line.  Angle  of  two  right  lines  5 
of  a  right  line  and  a  plane ;  of  two  planes. 

Projections  of  a  prism,  a  pyramid,  a  cylinder,  a  cone  with  circular  base,  executed  from 
models. 

Plane  sections  of  polyhedrons. 

Method  of  plans  cotes. 

STATICS.* 

Class  of  elementary  malheniatics. 

Forces.  Condition  of  equality  of  two  forces.  Their  numerical  representation.  Com- 
parison of  forces  with  weights  by  means  of  the  dynamometer.  Translation  of  the 
point  of  application  of  a  force  to  any  point  in  its  direction,  supposing  it  to  be  inva- 
riably connected  with  the  first  point. 

Composition  of  two  forces  applied  at  the  same  point.  Theorem  of  the  moments  with 
reference  to  a  point  taken  in  the  plane  of  the  forces.  Composition  of  any  number 
of  forces  applied  at  the  same  point.  Conditions  of  equilibrium.  Composition  of 

*  After  1880. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  125 

two  parallel  forces.  Couples.  Composition  of  any  number  of  parallel  forces.  Cen- 
ters of  parallel  forces.  Centers  of  gravity ;  their  determination  in  certain  simple 
cases,  as  the  triangle  and  pyramid.  Composition  of  a  system  of  forces  applied  to  a 
solid  body ;  their  reduction  to  two  forces,  one  of  which  acts  at  any  given  point. 
General  conditions  of  equilibrium. 

Simple  machines. 

The  lever:  General  condition  of  equilibrium;  relation  between  the  power  and  the 
weight.  The  balance:  Ordinary  balance,  Roman  balance,  scales  of  commerce.  The 
pulley:  Equilibrium  of  the  fixed  pulley;  of  the  movable  pulley.  Combinations  of 
pulleys.  The  capstan  or  windlass:  Equilibrium;  relation  between  the  power  and 
the  weight.  The  inclined  plane:  Equilibrium  of  a  bod y  placed  upon  an  inclined 
plane. 

Elements  of  kinematics  and  dynamics. 

Uniform  rectilinear  motion ;  velocity.  Varying  rectilinear  motion ;  mean  velocity ; 
velocity  at  any  instant.  Rectilinear  motion  uniformly  varied;  .acceleration.  Ac- 
celeration at  any  instant  in  a  varying  rectilinear  motion.  Composition  of  two  simul- 
taneous rectilinear  motions,  varying  uniformly  or  otherwise.  Uniform  motion  of 
rotation  about  a  fixed  axis;  angular  velocity. 

Law  of  inertia. 

Law  of  relative  motion:  The  inference  that  a  constant  force,  acting  upon  a  material 
point  which  starts  from  rest,  or  which  has  an  initial  velocity  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  force,  imparts  to  it  a  uniformly  varied  motion.  Converse  proposition.  Two 
constant  forces  are  proportional  to  the  accelerations  that  they  produce  in  acting 
separately  upon  the  same  material  point  which  starts  from  rest,  or  which  has  an 
initial  velocity  in  the  same  direction  as  the  force. 

Mass :  Its  measure  by  means  of  weight. 

Work  of  forces. 

The  work  of  a  constant  force  applied  to  a  point  whose  displacement  is  rectilinear. 
Unit  of  work.  To  show  that,  in  simple  machines,  in  a  state  of  uniform  motion  and 
acted  upon  only  by  a  power  and  a  resistance,  the  motive  power  is  equal  to  the  resist- 
ance. Influence  of  passive  resistance.  In  practice,  the  motive  power  always  exceeds 
the  useful  resistance. 

3. — ACADEMIC  YEAR. 

The  course  at  the  Naval  School  is  two  years.  The  academic  session 
on  board  the  Borda  begins  on  the  1st  of  October  and  lasts  nearly  ten 
months.  There  are  three  terms  or  trimesters,  of  three  months  each. 
The  regular  programme  of  studies  extends  only  over  the  first  eight 
months,  June  being  the  mois  de  pioche,  which  is  occupied  in  studying  for 
the  coming  examinations  and  in  special  exercises.  The  examinations 
take  up  nearly  the  whole  of  the  tenth  mouth,  July. 

After  the  close  of  the  annual  examinations,  the  students  of  the  second 
class  are  embarked  on  board  the  Bougainville,  a  small  vessel  attached 
to  the  school.  This  a  screw  steamer,  with  engines  of  120  horse-power, 
built  specially  for  the  school.  In  this  they  take  a  short  practice  cruise, 
during  which  they  visit  various  points  on  the  neighboring  coast  of  France, 
including  Cherbourg  on  the  one  hand  and  Lorient  on  the  other.  Some- 
times the  cruise  extends  as  far  as  Ferrol,  in  Spain.  During  the  cruise, 
the  pupils  are  stationed  with  the  men,  and  work  the  ship,  receiving  at 


126  NAVAL  EDUCATION — FRANCE. 

the  same  time  instruction  of  a  practical  character  in  seamanship,  navi- 
gation, and  steam-engineering,  and  performing  exercises  in  drawing. 
For  the  first  few  weeks,  the  first  class  also  takes  part  in  the  cruise,  in 
the  same  or  another  vessel ;  and  during  this  time,  the  practice  ships 
maneuver  in  and  about  the  roads  of  Brest;  and  when  the  second  class 
goes  to  sea,  the  members  of  the  first  class,  which  has  now  been  gradu- 
ated, are  sent  home  for  a  six  weeks'  vacation.  The  Bougainville  returns 
to  Brest  early  in  September,  and  the  second  class  men  have  leave  for  a 
month.  On  the  1st  of  October,  they  return  for  the  second  year  course 
in  the  Borda,  while  the  graduates,  now  for  the  first  time  admitted  with 
a  specific  rank  to  the  Navy,  are  embarked  on  board  the  Flore,  for  a 
more  extended  cruise.  They  are  called  aspirants  de  deuxieme  classe,  a 
term  nearly  equivalent  to  cadets,  and  they  are  still  undergoing  instruc- 
tion, though  instruction  of  a  more  distinctly  practical  character. 

During  the  course  on  board  the  Borda,  the  young  men  under  instruc- 
tion are  known  simply  as  pupils,  eleves.  There  are  two  classes  or  divis- 
ions, the  first  and  second,  being  those  respectively  in  their  second  and 
first  year.  The  average  number  in  a  class  is  between  40  and  50.  In 
June,  1878,  there  were  53  of  the  anciens,  or  first  class,  and  44  of  the 
second.  Each  class  is  divided  into  two  sections  (esoouades)  for  purposes 
of  administration,  and  each  of  the  four  sections  is  intrusted  to  the  par- 
ticular attention  of  a  lieutenant.  Each  section  is  again  divided  into  three 
subsections  (series)  for  the  interrogations.  Each  subsection  numbers 
about  eight  members. 

4. — COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

The  methods  of  instruction  adopted  in  the  Naval  School  of  Brest  are 
similar,  in  a  general  way,  to  those  of  other  French  schools  and  colleges, 
and  resemble  nothing  in  America.  Recitations  in  the  ordinary  sense  do 
not  exist,  and  text-books  are  almost  unknown.  A' few  books  of  reference 
are  used,  including  the  nautical  almanac,  a  work  on  physics  (by  Almeida), 
English  and  French  grammars,  and  the  admirable  series  of  manuals 
published  under  the  authority  of  the  Ministry  of  Marine.*  These  books 
are  not,  however,  used  as  text-books.  The  main  feature  of  the  system 
of  instruction  is  the  cours,  or  lecture.  This  is  delivered  in  a  more  or  less 
formal  manner  in  the  amphitheater,  and  the  students  take  notes,  which 
are  inspected  from  time  to  time  by  the  instructors.  They  also  receive, 
after  the  lecture,  a  full  summary  of  the  points  treated}  a  summary  so 

*  This  series  includes — 

1.  Manual  of  the  seaman-gunner  (matelot  canonnier). 

2.  Manual  of  the  topman  (gabier). 

3.  Manual  of  the  small-arm  man  (mar in  fusilier). 

4.  Manual  of  the  coast-pilot  (pilote  cotier). 

5.  Manual  of  the  helmsman  (matelot  timonier). 

6.  Manual  of  torpedoes  (defcnses-sous-marines). 

7.  Manual  of  fencing  and  gymnastics. 

8.  Manual  of  miscellaneous  exercises  (diving,  &c.)« 


THE    KAVAL    SCHOOL.  127 

full  that  it  amounts  pretty  nearly  to  the  lecture  itself.    It  is  reproduced 
•n  lithographic  sheets  (feuilles  autographiees)  similar  to  those  in  use  at 
the  Polytechnic  and  elsewhere,  and  contains  all  the  necessary  drawings, 
diagrams,  and  tables.     The  time  allowed  for  the  cours  is  from  an  hour 
to  an  hour  and  a  quarter.     It  is  followed  by  a  short  recess,  and  by  a 
period  of  study  from  one  to  two  hours  long,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
same  or  a  subordinate  instructor,  but  always  on  the  same  branch  of 
study.    Thus  a  lecture  in  mechanics  is  followed  by  study  in  mechanics  ; 
a  lecture  in  naval  architecture  by  study  in  naval  architecture,  and  so 
on.    During  the  study  period,  assistance  and  explanations  are  given; 
various  exercises  are  performed,  in  some  cases  an  abstract  of  the  previ- 
ous lecture  being  made ;  and  the  interrogations  are  held.    The  latter  are 
a  peculiar  feature  of  the  system,  and  form  the  complement  of  the  cours. 
They  are  conducted  orally,  and  are  something  between  a  recitation  and 
a  monthly  examination.    They  are  of  two  kinds,  particular  and  general ; 
and  each  student  has  an  interrogation  of  both  kinds  in  each  term.    The 
particular  interrogations  take  place  at  irregular  intervals,  during  the 
study  period,  and  are  held  without  previous  notice ;  the  captain  desig- 
nating each  day  the  students  who  are  to  be  interrogated.    They  cover 
the  ground  gone  over  since  the  beginning  of  the  term.    The  general  in- 
terrogations are  held  at  the  end  of  each  term  on  the  studies  of  the 
whole  term.    They  are  longer  and  fuller  than  the  others,  and  they  have 
a  greater  weight  in  determining  the  term-mark,  counting  double  in  the 
two  first  terms,  and  three  times  as  much  in  the  third  term.    The  pro- 
fessor may  call  upon  students  to  aiiswrer  questions  at  other  times,  during 
the  hours  of  lecture,  for  example,  but  this  is  not  done  to  any  very  great 
extent. 

The  general  interrogation  of  the  third  term  covers  the  course  for  the 
•whole  year,  but  it  is  independent  of  the  final  annual  examination.  This, 
of  course,  has  the  same  scope  as  the  last  interrogation,  and  the  latter 
seems  to  be  conducted  chietiy  with  a  view  to  preparing  the  students  to 
pass  it.  The  examination  is  conducted  by  an  outside  board  appointed 
for  the  purpose,  of  which  the  Preset  Maritime  is  president,  and  the  prin- 
cipal working  member  in  scientific  subjects  is  a  professor  of  hydrog- 
raphy. It  is  thorough  and  searching  in  character,  and  upon  it  chiefly 
depends  the  advancement  or  discharge  of  students  of  doubtful  capacity. 
The  essential  point,  however,  to  be  noticed  about  it  is  that  it  is  con- 
ducted independently  of  the  school,  and  thus  acts  as  check  upon  in- 
structors. 

The  marking  system  is  exceedingly  simple.  The  maximum  is,  as  usual , 
20.  The  term  marks,  as  has  been  stated,  are  ascertained  by  combining 
the  marks  for  the  two  interrogations,  giving  the  second  double  weight, 
and,  in  the  case  of  third  term,  triple  weight.  The  term-marks  are  com- 
bined with  equal  weight  to  determine  the  school-mark  for  the  year ;  and 
the  latter,  combined  with  the  mark  for  the  annual  examination,  given  by 
the  examining  board,  fixes  the  mark  in  each  subject  for  the  year.  The 


128  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

examination  thus  counts  as  much  in  the  final  standing  as  the  whole 
year's  course.  To  obtain  the  final  mark  of  each  student  for  the  year, 
the  mark  in  each  branch  is  multiplied  by  its  coefficient,  and  the  sum  of 
the  products  is  taken,  increased  by  the  captain's  marks  for  conduct  and 
aptitude.  The  co-efficient  of  the  former  is  4,  and  of  the  latter  2.  The 
two  years  have  equal  Aveight  in  determining  the  mark  for  the  whole 
course. 

Daily  reports  are  made  by  instructors  to  the  captain,  of  marks  given 
at  interrogations.  On  Sunday  the  marks  for  the  past  week  are  published* 
Those  pupils  whose  mark  is  less  than  10  in  practical  navigation,  or  less 
than  5  (25  per  cent.)  in  any  other  branch,  are  deprived  of  the  privilege 
of  going  ashore.  The  captain  also  sends  a  weekly  report  to  the  PreTet 
Maritime.  At  the  end  of  each  term  merit-rolls  are  made  out,  in  which 
the  rank  of  students  is  determined  by  the  method  given  above.  Defi- 
cient students  are  reported  to  the  secondary  council  of  instruction,  which 
re-examines  them,  and  makes  a  report  of  the  result,  with  recommenda- 
tions as  to  the  final  action  to  be  taken.  In  forwarding  this  report  the 
captain  is  allowed,  in  the  case  of  deficient  students  whose  conduct  or 
character  is  bad,  to  add  a  recommendation  for  their  expulsion,  in  place 
of  suspension  or  permission  to  withdraw. 

After  the  annual  examination,  merit-rolls  are  made  out  for  the  year 
and  for  the  course.  Upon  the  latter  depends  the  seniority  of  the  grad- 
uates as  cadets  or  aspirants.  At  this  examination,  also,  students  who 
show  a  want  of  capacity  or  of  aptitude  for  the  service,  or  whose  marks 
fall  below  the  standard,  are  reported.  Those  whose  deficiency  is  due  to 
illness  are  allowed  to  repeat  the  studies  of  the  year,  but  the  others  are 
discharged  and  sent  back  to  their  friends  (rendus  a  leurs  families). 

An  honorary  distinction,  but  one  accompanied  by  no  authority  or  re- 
sponsibility, is  given  at  the  end  of  each  term  to  the  students  who  take 
rank  in  the  first  quarter  of  their  class  on  the  merit-rolls  for  the  term. 
The  distinction  consists  in  the  title  of  eleve  (Telite,  and  the  privilege  of 
wearing  an  anchor  on  the  collar  of  the  jacket ;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
first  third  of  the  eleves  (Relite,  two  anchors.  The  honor  is  forfeited  for 
any  of  the  more  serious  offenses,  and  is  not  conferred  upon  pupils  who 
have  undergone  imprisonment.  The  6Uves  d'elite  are  allowed  to  go 
ashore  on  all  the  liberty  days.  A  prize  of  a  sextant  or  a  telescope  is 
given  to  the  three  highest  men  on  the  roll  of  the  graduating  class. 

The  following  table  gives  the  branches  of  study,  the  co-efficients,  and  . 
the  number  of  hours  per  week  of  lecture,  study,  and  exercises,  the  last 
being  partly  theoretical  or  instructional,  and  partly  practical.    The  table 
applies  equally  to  both  classes,  as  both  have  the  same  branches  of  study 
on  alternate  days,  and  the  same  aggregate  division  of  time. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL. 


129 


Course  of  study  and  co-efficients. 


Co-efllcient. 

Number  of  hours  per  week. 

e 

0 

O 

Study  and 
interroga- 
tion. 

a 
• 

3 

8          1' 
§          1 

W             H 

General  subjects  : 

7 
5 
3 

10 
10 

7 

7 

8 
6 

2 
2 

3* 
3* 

54 

3J               3J 
6} 

Scientific  subjects  : 

2£ 
24 
l| 

4 
4 
2 

.   .               6J 

3i 

2i               2* 

15i             15J 
44              4J 

24              2* 

J       4|              4£ 

2| 

Professional  subjects  : 

6 

I    I 

Infantry  

1 

If 

Jf  aviil  architecture  

Total  

11J 

18| 
10 

32i             G2J 

!           10 

General  study  (etude  libre)      ........          ...... 

iii 

28| 

32J             72£ 

*  Theory  and  practice.  In  the  number  of  hours  allowed  to  seamanship  is  included  the  time  taken  up 
in  getting  on  board  the  corvette  and  returning  to  the  ship ;  and  in  gunnery,  the  time  consumed  in 
going  ashore  and  returning. 

The  total  amount  of  work  performed  under  supervision — over  ten  hours 
a  day  (including  Sunday) — is  reduced  slightly  by  the  infrequent  privi- 
lege of  an  afternoon  on  shore ;  but  even  with  this  deduction  it  would  be 
considered  excessive  according  to  American  standards,  especially  in  a 
school  where  the  pupils  had  only  a  month  or  six  weeks  of  vacation  in 
the  whole  year.  The  principle  of  work  under  supervision  is,  however^ 
one  of  the  essential  features  of  all  French  education. 

In  the  daily  arrangement  of  studies,  the  morning  is  devoted  to  scien- 
tific subjects ;  the  afternoon,  from  one  o'clock  to  four,  to  professional 
study  and  exercises  (the  latter  including  drawing),  and  the  evening, 
after  five  o'clock,  to  miscellaneous  subjects,  including  naval  architecture. 
The  working  day  begins  with  general  study  (etude  libre)  from  a  quarter 
before  six  to  seven.  At  a  quarter  past  eight  the  cours  for  the  day  be- 
gins, twice  a  week  in  astronomy  and  navigation,  twice  in  analysis  and 
mechanics,  and  once  in  physics  and  chemistry.  The  two  subjects  in  each, 
group  are  not  pursued  simultaneously — the  second  is  taken  up  after  the 
first  is  finished ;  but  in  the  allotment  of  time  they  are  considered  as  sin- 
gle groups  or  departments.  The  cours  lasts  one  hour  and  a  quarter  and 
is  followed  by  study,  on  the  same  subject,  under  supervision.  During 
this  period  of  study,  lasting  two  hours,  the  interrogations  are  held.  In 
the  evening  studies  the  same  system  prevails,  the  cours  being  from  five 
to  six  o'clock,  and  the  study  from  6.15  to  7.45.  In  the  afternoon  the 
distinction  of  lectures,  study,  interrogation,  and  exercise  is  not  preserved, 
but  instruction  is  given  during  the  allotted  hours,  lasting  from  1  to  4.15, 
in  the  most  convenient  manner. 
S.  EX.  51 9 


130  NAVAL  EDUCATION — FRANCE. 

This  is  the  programme  for  five  days  in  the  week;  Thursday  and  Sun- 
day are  exceptional  days.  .They  are  not  holidays,  by  any  means,  for 
holidays  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  on  board  the  Borda,  except  at  rare 
intervals ;  but  they  serve  to  vary  the  monotony  of  a  dead  level  of  routine. 
On  these  days  the  students  begin  with  an  hour  of  practical  navigation 
at  a  quarter  before  six  in  the  morning.  Part  of  the  forenoon  is  occupied 
on  Thursday  with  infantry  drill  on  shore,  and  on  Sunday  with  inspection, 
m  iss,  study,  and  fencing.  The  rest  of  the  forenoon  and  the  whole  of  the 
afternoon  on  both  days  are  spent  on  board  the  corvette,  performing 
maneuA^ers  in  the  roads..  In  case  of  bad  weather,  the  students  remain 
on  board  the  Borda,  having  study  hours  till  noon,  and  various  seaman- 
ship exercises  (ecole  de  matelotage)  in  the  afternoon. 

During  June,  with  the  exception  of  three  infantry  drills,  the  forenoon 
and  evening  (from  4.30  p.  in.)  are  given  to  study.  One  week  is  wholly 
taken  up  by  the  third  term  interrogation.  The  three  hours  in  the  after- 
noon are  variously  spent  in  exercises,  visits  to  the  arsenal  and  other 
places,  and  special  study.  On  five  days  the  students  go  on  board  the 
corvette  and  work  ship.  The  two  divisions  spend  three  or  four  after- 
noons separately  in  the  dockyard,  one  day  in  charge  of  the  gunnery  in- 
structor, another  day  of  the  engineer,  and  another  of  the  instructor  in 
naval  architecture.  The  first  class  is  taken  to  the  gun-cotton  factory  by 
the  gunnery  instructor.  The  other  exercises  consist  of  drawing,  infan- 
try, and  great  guns  for  both  classes ;  observing,  at  the  observatory  on 
shore,  and  sabre-drill,  for  the  first  class ;  and  boat-drills  and  signals  for 
the  second  class. 

Though  the  course  lasts  only  two  years,  the  high  standard  of  admis- 
sion makes  it  possible  to  accomplish  a  great  deal  in  that  time,  and  to  do 
the  work  thoroughly.  The  studies  classed  under  "  general  subjects"  em- 
brace a  full  course  of  French  literature,  and  a  continuation  and  comple- 
tion of  the  history  course  of  the  Lycees.  Instruction  in  the  English 
language  includes  the  technical  terms  of  seamanship,  gunnery,  and  steam- 
engineering.  The  manner  in  which  this  instruction  is  given  is  peculiar 
and  admirable.  The  lithographed  cours  of  the  professors,  far  from  being 
a  mere  dictionary  of  terms,  comprise  connected  treatises  on  these  three 
subjects,  in  English;  and  excellent  treatises  they  are,  apart  from  their 
main  object  of  teaching  a  foreign  language,  being  clear,  compact,  and 
systematic.  They,  therefore,  give  practice  not  only  in  a  nautical  but  in 
a  general  vocabulary,  and  in  the  construction  of  sentences,  and  the 
application  of  grammatical  principles.  The  character  of  the  exercise 
will  be  best  shown  by  examples,  a  few  of  which  are  given  in  the  appen- 
dix, taken  from  different  parts  of  the  work.* 

The  second  division,  known  as  the  scientific  subjects,  comprises  three 
groups  of  studies,  astronomy  and  navigation,  analysis  and  mechanics, 
and  physics  and  chemistry.  More  time  is  given  to  these  subjects  than 
to  the  others,  and  the  time  is  in  general  better  arranged,  the  whole 

*Note  I. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  131 

forenoon  being  taken  up  with  them.  The  course  in  the  first  group  of 
studies,  astronomy  and  navigation,  begins  with  a  short  review  of  descrip- 
tive geometry  and  of  spherical  trigonometry.  Astronomy  is  taught 
chiefly  as  subsidiary  to  navigation,  but  it  receives  a  pretty  full  treatment, 
always  from  a  mathematical  point  of  view.  The  course  in  navigation  is 
both  theoretical  and  practical,  and  includes  all  that  could  well  be  taught 
in  a  stationary  ship.  There  is  a  small  observatory  on  shore,  which  is  in 
the  charge  of  this  department.  The  hour  before  breakfast,  on  two  days 
in  the  week,  is  devoted  to  observations  and  the  solution  of  practical 
problems.  The  time  is  chiefly  devoted,  however,  to  a  thorough  founda- 
tion in  the  theory  of  navigation  and  to  working  out  examples  j  the  year 
on  board  the  practice  ship,  after  graduation,  giving  ample  time  to  de- 
velop and  perfect  the  exclusively  practical  part  of  the  subject. 

In  the  second  group,  analysis  and  mechanics,  the  course  begins  with 
a  short  review  of  certain  subjects  in  algebra,  such  as  fractional  and  neg- 
ative exponents,  the  binomial  formula  of  Newton,  series,  &c.  Next 
comes  a  thorough  course  in  analytical  geometry,  including  higher  plane 
curves.  This  is  followed  by  the  differential  and  integral  calculus,  in- 
cluding the  method  of  least  squares.  After  this,  the  class  takes  up 
mechanics,  going  through  statics.  This  completes  the  course  for  the 
first  year.  The  second  year  begins  with  the  subject  of  differential  equa- 
tions, after  which  comes  the  rest  of  mechanics,  embracing  kinematics 
and  dynamics.  The  second  year's  work  includes  an  elaborate  course 
in  theoretical  mechanics,  and  in  mechanics  applied  to  machinery. 

Physics  and  chemistry  are  so  divided  that  a  part  of  both  subjects  is 
taught  in  each  year.  At  present  the  Naval  School  does  not  possess  the 
necessary  means  for  instruction  in  either  subject,  such  as  apparatus, 
laboratories,  &c.,  and  the  course  in  both  is  somewhat  meager  and  inad- 
equate. It  is  hoped  that  before  long  a  laboratory  will  be  provided.  Of 
course  it  will  have  to  be  on  shore,  and  its  distance  from  the  school  will 
interfere  seriously  with  its  usefulness.  At  present  some  use  is  made 
of  the  laboratory  connected  with  the  pharmaceutical  department  at 
Brest ;  but  this  answers  very  ill  for  instruction  in  chemistry,  and  is  of  no 
use  at  all  in  physics.  The  lectures  in  the  former  branch  are  given  up  to 
general  chemistry,  with  little  view  to  its  application  to  the  naval  pro- 
fession j  while  many  of  the  theories  taught  are  obsolete,  the  dualistic  form- 
ulas are  retained,  and  the  lectures  in  general  do  not  represent  the  pres- 
ent condition  of  the  science. 

In  the  professional  branches,  the  only  regular  cours  delivered  are  in 
steam -engineering,  ordnance  and  gunnery,  and  naval  architecture.  In 
the  other  subjects,  and  even  in  the  first  two  of  these,  reliance  is  largely 
placed  on  practical  exercises,  supplemented  by  oral  explanations.  The 
lithographed  cours  form  a  series  of  elaborate  works  on  the  various  sub- 
jects, and,  with  the  manuals,  afford  all  the  necessary  materials  for  im- 
parting a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  all  the  branches.  In 
seamanship,  the  cours  contains  a  description  of  the  parts  of  a  ship, 


132  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

treated  in  a  regular  and  systematic  way,  with  the  most  general  and  ele- 
mentary matters  at  the  beginning ;  thus  avoiding  the  faults  of  construction 
and  arrangement  which  characterize  most  of  the  text-books  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  cours  for  the  second  year  is  a  complete  sailmaker's  and  rig- 
ger's guide,  and  contains  a  general  explanation  and  description  of  ma- 
neuvers. The  problems  of  mathematics  and  mechanics  involved  in  the 
subject,  such  as  arise  in  lifting  and  getting  on  board  heavy  weights,  in 
the  action  of  sails  and  rudder  on  the  motions  of  a  ship,  &c.,  are  worked 
out  in  detail.  As  between  theory  and  practice,  however,  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  the  time  in  this  branch  is  given  to  the  latter. 

The  course  in  ordnance  includes  the  subjects  of  metals,  the  fabrica- 
tion, testing,  and  inspection  of  guns;  a  full  description  of  the  three 
principal  types  or  models  in  use  in  the  French  Navy,  those  of  1858-'60, 
of  1864-'6G,  and  of  1870;  carriages;  powder;  projectiles,  and  their 
manufacture ;  the  complete  discussion  of  the  theory  of  motion  of  pro- 
jectiles in  air;  the  calculation  of  range  tables,  and  the  effect  of  projec- 
tiles on  armor.  Under  the  head  of  ordnance  and  gunnery  (artillerie) 
come  also  instruction  in  stationary  and  movable  torpedoes ;  the  cours 
djinfanterie,  which  is  a  treatise  on  small-arms,  principally  the  Gras  rifle, 
together  with  the  theory  of  firing  (etude  theorique  du  tir),  mathematically 
treated;  and  a  short  explanation  of  topographical  charts.  The  course 
is  filled  out  by  the  manuals  of  the  seaman-gunner,  and  of  small- arms, 
and  torpedoes. 

The  remaining  professional  subjects,  steam-engineering  and  naval 
architecture,  are  treated  with  great  fullness  and  thoroughness.  With 
the  exception  of  astronomical  navigation,  calculus,  and  mechanics, 
they  are  the  most  elaborate  and  skillfully-managed  courses  at  the  school. 
The  instructors  are  a  principal  mechanician  for  the  first  branch,  and  two 
lieutenants  of  high  scientific  attainments  for  the  second.  Naval  archi- 
tecture includes  ship-building,  as  well  as  the  higher  problems  of  naval 
architecture  properly  so  called.  The  published  lectures  in  both  courses 
are  well-digested  and  exhaustive  works  from  a  scientific  and  mathematical, 
as  well  as  a  professional  point  of  view.  (See  Appendix,  Note  J.) 

The  practical  exercises  in  the  course  are  as  follows : 

1.  Seamanship. 

2.  Great  guns. 

3.  Howitzers,  in  boats  and  on  shore. 

4.  Infantry. 

5.  Landing  parties  (Exerclces  de  debar  quern  ent). 

6.  Boats,  with  sails  and  with  oars. 

7.  Steam-engine. 

8.  Fencing. 

9.  Swimming  (school  in  town). 
10.  Dancing  (first  class  only). 

The  last  three  are  considered  as  recreations.    The  seamanship  exer- 
cises include  long  drills  on  Thursday  and  Sunday,  in  good  weather.    In- 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  133 

struction  is  given  in  signals.  At  certain  times  the  corvette  is  under 
steam,  and  the  students  are  then  given  practical  instruction  in  the  work- 
ing of  the  engines,  two  being  stationed  at  a  time  in  the  engine-room, 
and  two  at  the  fires.  Seamanship  instruction  of  a  practical  character, 
which  does  not  involve  getting  a  ship  under  way,  is  given  on  those  af- 
ternoons when  the  regular  exercise  is  put  off  by  bad  weather. 

The  system  of  instruction  on  board  the  Borda  is  one  which  has  many 
advantages  in  the  hands  of  able  instructors,  while  with  an  inefficient 
staff  it  would  inevitably  go  to  pieces.  In  it,  the  instructor  and  the  in- 
structor's teaching  are  everything ;  the  text-book  nothing.  As  far  as  he 
has  occasion  to  use  them,  the  instructor  makes  his  own  text-books.  The 
system  is  one  that  affords  at  the  same  time  an  excellent  check  and  a 
powerful  stimulus  to  the  teacher.  It  is  practically  his  class-room  work 
that  is  published  in  the  lithographed  sheets,  and  the  whole  details  of  his 
teaching  are  therefore  laid  open  to  inspection.  If  he  is  incompetent  he 
cannot  conceal  it,  and  if  he  devises  new  and  original  methods,  if  his 
studies  are  carried  into  the  most  recent  and  most  advanced  stages  of 
scientific  and  professional  progress,  he  gets  full  credit  for  it.  The  out- 
side examiners  are  placed  in  a  position  to  inspect  not  only  results,  but 
methods,  and,  if  either  are  defective,  to  ascertain  the  most  effectual 
remedy. 

5. — DISCIPLINE— MODE  OF  LIFE — EOUTINE. 

The  discipline  of  the  Borda  is  severe,  even  for  a  ship  in  commission. 
The  supervision  is  so  close  and  constant  that  there  is  very  little  oppor- 
tunity of  committing  grave  offenses  without  immediate  discovery ;  and 
the  list  of  punishments  is  calculated  to  preclude  their  repetition.  The 
list  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  Eeprimand  (1)  pronounced  by  an  officer  or  professor;  (2)  by  the 
second  in  command  or  executive  officer. 

2.  Punishment  squad,  one  hour  a  day,  for  three  days  at  most. 

3.  Coventry  (lapolice),  not  more  than  ten'  days. 

4.  Prison,  not  more  than  ten  days. 

5.  Dark  cell  (cachot),  not  more  than  five  days. 

6.  Suspension. 

7.  Expulsion. 

Each  offense,  or  rather  each  punishment,  as  representing  an  offense,  has 
an  influence  on  the  conduct-mark.  This  mark  is  on  a  scale  of  20. 
Demerits  (points  depunition)  are  given  as  a  record  of  conduct,  and  the 
maximum  number  allowed  in  a  term  is  200.  An  absence  of  demerits 
gives  a  conduct-mark  of  20,  while  the  maximum  gives  a  mark  of  zero. 
A  student  that  receives  the  latter  as  his  term-mark  in  conduct,  is 
reported  to  the  minister  for  dismissal.  The  number  of  demerits  attached 
to  each  offense  is  fixed  by  a  scale,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
punish  in  ent.  Thus,  every  reprimand  gives  from  one  to  two  demerits ; 
the  squad  gives  two  demerits,  and  one  in  addition  for  each  day  of 


134  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

punishment  j  Coventry  gives  five  demerits,  and  one  for  each  day,  and 
so  upwards.  Delinquents  whose  offenses  cannot  be  suitably  punished 
by  the  captain  are  sent  to  the  guard-ship,  where  the  Prefet  disposes  of 
them,  either  by  a  severer  punishment,  or  by  a  report  to  the  Minister  of 
Marine,  recommending  their  dismissal. 

The  character  of  the  punishments  is  somewhat  peculiar.  Delinquents 
placed  in  the  punishment  squad  are  posted  in  line  with  a  short  interval 
between  each  man,  and  required  to  keep  the  position  of  the  soldier  with- 
out arms  for  one  hour.  If  the  number  is  large,  they  may  be  drilled  for 
an  hour.  Coventry  consists  in  isolating  an  offender  from  his  companions 
and  from  everyone  else  during  tjhe  hours  of  study,  recreation,  and  meals- 
He  attends  lectures  and  practical  exercises.  He  has  his  meals  from  the 
mess-table  of  the  crew ;  and  his  allowance  of  wine  is  weakened  with 
water.  Delinquents  undergoing  imprisonment  are  allowed  to  attend 
the  lectures  and  interrogations  in  scientific  subjects  only,  but  they  are 
deprived  of  these  also,  if  it  is  found  expedient,  as  sometimes  happens, 
to  confine  them  on  board  one  of  the  corvettes  instead  of  the  Borda,  for 
the  sake  of  greater  isolation.  When  the  fifth  punish  ment  is  ordered,  that 
of  confinement  in  the  cachot,  the  delinquent  is  taken  out  of  his  dark  cell 
for  one  hour  only  in  the  twenty -four.  This  hour  is  employed  in  solitary 
exercise  aloft  (exereice  de  gymnastique  dans  le  greement).  In  both  the 
prison  and  the  cachot,  delinquents  are  allowed  a  blanket  and  their  can- 
vas blouse  and  trousers,  but  they  sleep  on  the  floor.  Their  meals  are 
served  from  the  crew's  mess  ;  but  in  the  cachot  they  are  reduced  on  the 
first,  third,  and  fifth  days  of  confinement  to  soup,  bread,  and  water. 
Naturally,  with  such  punishments,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  maintaining 
discipline  on  board  the  Borda. 

Deprivation  of  liberty  to  go  ashore  does  not  exist  as  a  separate  pun- 
ishment for  offenses ;  but  the  privilege  is  taken  away  in  consequence  of 
very  low  marks,  or  of  any  of  the  five  school  punishments,  incurred 
during  the  previous  fortnight.  A  whole  class  may  be  occasionally 
deprived  of  liberty  for  a  general  infraction  of  the  regulations. 

Lieutenants  and  professors  can  only  pronounce  reprimands;  all  the 
other  punishments,  except  the  dark  cell  and  removal  from  the  school, 
may  be  inflicted  by  the  commander,  but  the  duration  of  the  punishment 
is  always  fixed  by  the  captain.  Sectional  inspections  are  conducted 
daily  by  the  chiefs  of  sections,  and  a  general  inspection  is  held  on  Thurs- 
day by  the  commander  and  on  Sunday  by  the  captain ;  but  informal 
inspections  of  all  parts  of  the  ship  occupied  by  students,  including  also 
their  chests,  lockers,  &c.,  are  made  at  any  time  by  the  adjudants.  Offenses 
are  reported  by  any  officer,  from  the  commander  down  to  the  adjudants. 
and  instructing  petty  officers,  under  whose  notice  they  come. 

The  students  are  not  allowed  to  have  any  articles  in  their  possession 
other  than  those  authorized  in  the  prescribed  outfit,  and  they  can  keep 
nothing  under  lock  and  key.  Any  books,  watches,  rings,  or  other  un- 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  135 

authorized  articles  that  they  bring  with  them  when  they  first  join  the 
school  are  taken  away,  and  only  restored  at  their  departure.  They  are 
forbidden  to  obtain  or  receive  anything,  from  outside,  even  from  their 
friends,  but  they  may  procure  tobacco  and  such  other  small  matters  as 
they  need  at  a  little  shop  (cantine)  on  board.  Novels  and  newspapers 
are  especially  prohibited,  and  the  penalty  for  having  a  novel  in  posses- 
sion is  confinement  in  prison. 

Formerly,  there  was  a  relation  of  authority  and  responsibility  between 
the  older  and  younger  students,  but  this  exists  no  longer.  No  monitorial 
authority  of  any  kind  is  exercised,  and  positions  of  command  in  drills 
are  purely  temporary  and  cease  when  the  drill  is  over.  Orders  are  re- 
ceived from  the  chiefs  of  sections  (lieutenants),  and  complaints  in  each 
section  are  made  to  them  at  inspection.  If  the  complaint  does  not  meet 
with  attention,  the  matter  can  be  laid  before  the  commander  or  captain 
at  Thursday  or  Sunday  inspection. 

The  two  classes  go  ashore  on  alternate  Sundays  once  a  month,  the 
second  class  on  the  first  Sunday  in  the  month  and  the  first  class  on  the 
second.  On  these  days  the  class  not  on  liberty  has  practice  for  six  hours 
in  working  ship  on  board  the  corvette,  and  on  the  other  Sundays  in  the 
month  the  two  classes  are  exercised  either  together  or  separately,  using 
both  the  small  vessels.  Dinner  takes  place  on  board  the  corvette  to 
save  time.  The  students  on  liberty  go  ashore  in  charge  of  a  lieutenant, 
who  remains  on  duty  during  the  liberty  hours  at  an  office  provided  for  him 
at  the  Etablissement  des  Pupilles.  He  has,  during  this  time,  a  general 
oversight  of  the  students  on  shore,  and  he  brings  them  off  to  the  ship. 
The  hours  of  liberty  are  from  11  a.  m.  till  sunset,  or  till  7  p.  m.,  when 
sunset  is  later. 

No  students  are  allowed  to  go  on  shore,  even  on  liberty  days,  unless 
the  privilege  is  asked  for  them  by  their  correspondent.  This  person  is  a 
resident  of  Brest,  selected  by  the  parent  or  guardian  of  the  student  to 
act  as  his  agent  at  Brest  and  to  look,  in  a  general  way,  after  his  inter- 
ests. No  officer  of  the  school  or  contractor  furnishing  supplies  to  the 
school  can  be  a  correspondent.  Correspondents  cannot  visit  students  in 
their  charge  on  board  the  ship  ;  indeed,  tliis  privilege  is  not  accorded  to 
any  one ;  but  a  half  hour,  after  the  infantry  drill  on  Thursday,  is  de- 
voted to  interviews,  which  take  place  on  the  drill-ground  or  in  the  build- 
ing adjoining.  In  exceptional  cases  students  may  go  ashore  to  visit  their 
parents  when  the  latter  are  temporarily  at  Brest,  but  this  privilege  is  only 
granted  on  Sunday,  and  never,  except  in  grave  and  peculiar  circum- 
stances, to  pupils  who  reside  in  the  neighborhood. 

Each  student  receives  on  his  arrival  a  number,  which  he  retains 
throughout  the  course  and  by  which  he  is  known.  It  is  placed  on  all 
his  clothes,  his  desk,  his  books,  and  his  hammock. 

According  to  the  table  of  studies  already  given,  it  has  been  seen  that 
62£  hours  a  week  are  given  to  special  exercises  and  10  to  general  study. 


13  J  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

The  remaining  95J  hours  which  go  to  make  up  the  total  of  the  week  are 
roughly  divided  as  follows : 

Hours. 

Sleep ...'. 57 

Recreation 16 

Meals 9i 

Physical  exercise 3 

Inspections 2 

Miscellaneous  (including  dressing,  prayers,  and  religious  service) 8 


Total 95^ 

The  students  rise  at  five  o'clock  every  day  in  the  year.  Three-quar- 
ters of  an  hour  are  occupied  with  dressing,  prayers,  and  stowing  ham- 
mocks ;  after  which,  the  early  morning  study  takes  place  for  an  hour 
and  a  quarter  on  five  days  in  the  week,  varied  on  Thursday  and  Sun- 
day by  exercises  in  practical  navigation.  The  study  is  followed  by  half 
an  hour  of  exercise,  either  gymnastics  or  fencing.  All  this  is  done  before 
breakfast.  The  routine  of  lectures,  study,  and  exercises  in  the  forenoon 
and  afternoon  has  already  been  given.  The  aggregate  number  of  hours 
of  recreation  during  the  week,  16,  seems  sufficiently  large,  but  the  pro- 
gramme is  so  arranged  as  to  cut  up  the  time  into  little  scraps  or  recesses, 
making  it  hardly  available  for  solid  amusement.  Thus  there  is  a  recess 
of  fifteen  minutes  after  breakfast,  from  7.45  to  8 ;  of  30  minutes,  from 
9.30  to  10,  between  the  cours  and  study ;  of  30  minutes  after  dinner,  from 
12.30  to  1 ;  of  15  minutes  in  the  period  of  afternoon  exercise,  from  2.45 
to  3 5  from  15  to  30  minutes  after  afternoon  luncheon,  between  4.30  and 
5  j  and  of  15  minutes  between  the  evening  cours  and  study,  from  6  to 
6.15.  After  supper  there  are  no  studies  j  recreation  lasts  from  8  to  8.45, 
followed  by  prayers  and  turning  in  at  9. 

On  Thursday  and  Sunday  the  programme  is  modified  in  order  to  give 
six  hours  in  the  afternoon  on  board  the  corvette ;  while  the  whole  of 
Thursday  morning  is  taken  up  with  infantry  drill,  on  shore,  and  of  Sun- 
day morning  with  inspection  and  mass.  As  both  these  days  are  harder 
working  days  than  the  others,  the  hour  for  turning  in  is  thirty  minutes 
earlier. 

There  are  four  meals  a  day  on  board  the  Borda,  as  follows :  Breakfast, 
7.30  a.  m. ;  dinner,  12  m. ;  afternoon  luncheon,  4.15  p.  m. ;  supper  7.45 
p.  m.  The  table  is  good,  though  exceedingly  simple.  The  breakfast 
consists,  after  the  French  fashion,  simply  of  coffee  and  bread  and  butter, 
while  the  afternoon  luncheon  (gouter)  is  of  bread  alone.  Dinner  is  com- 
posed of  soup,  two  dishes  (plats) — one  of  meat,  the  other  of  vegetables — 
and  dessert ;  and  supper  of  meat,  pudding  or  vegetables,  and  cake  or 
sweetmeats.  Half  a  pint  of  wine  is  allowed  at  dinner  and  at  supper. 
On  Friday  the  dishes  of  meat  are  replaced  by  fish.  The  regulation  re- 
quires that  the  bill  of  fare  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  provide  for  the 
twelve  meals  per  week,  of  which  meat  forms  a  part,  four  of  boiled  beef, 
two  of  roast  beef,  three  of  mutton,  two  of  veal,  and  one  of  poultry.* 

*  The  bill  of  fare  for  one  day  is  given  in  the  Appendix,  note  K. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  137 

Students  arereiuirel  to  take  a  bath  (grand  bain  or  bain  complet)  once 
a  month,  and  to  take  a  foot-bath  once  a  week.  This  somewhat  infre- 
quent ablution  is  supplemented  in  summer  by  sea-baths.  The  half  hour 
devoted  to  the  regular  baths  is  that  assigned  in  the  programme  to  gym- 
nastic exercise,  just  before  breakfast.  The  uniform  of  eleves  is  the  usual 
blue  jacket  and  trousers  j  but  it  is  not  much  worn  on  board  ship,  the 
customary  dress  being  the  white  canvas  blouse  and  overalls.  This  is 
worn  even  at  studies  and  lectures.  Blue  is  worn  at  mass  and  at  in- 
spections and  on  shore.  When  on  liberty  ashore  students  are  required 
to  wear  a  sword. 

There  is  sick-call  every  morning  and  evening  on  board.  In  case  of 
light  illness  students  are  placed  in  the  sick-bay.  Severer  cases  are  sent 
to  the  hospital  on  shore,  where  a  ward  is  specially  reserved  for  the  school. 
In  the  latter  case  the  correspondent  is  immediately  notified. 

Religious  service  consists  of  prayers  morning  and  evening,  and  mass 
on  Sunday  morning.  The  latter  lasts  half  an  hour,  and  attendance  is 
required  of  all  except  the  Protestants.  The  number  of  these  is  vory 
small,  there  being  five  in  1878.  They  are  allowed  to  have  such  serv- 
ice as  they  see  fit  by  themselves  in  the  sick-bay.  An  hour  is  set  apart 
on  two  evenings  in  the  week,  during  which  the  students  who  feel  so  dis- 
posed may  visit  the  chaplain. 

The  general  impression  obtained  by  an  examination  of  the  Borda  sys- 
tem is  that  it  is  one  of  extreme  severity  and  repression.  Not  that  the 
application  of  the  system  or  the  method  of  administration  is  harsh.  On 
the  contrary,  the  relations  of  the  governing  authorities  and  the  students 
seem  to  be  of  the  most  amiable  and  cordial  character.  A  spirit  of  sub- 
ordination and  a  general  desire  to  perform  well  the  allotted  tasks  and 
duties  is  said  to  pervade  the  school;  and  though  the  punishments  are 
severe  they  are  infrequent.  The  essential  features  of  the  system  are  the 
close  and  constant  supervision  maintained  over  the  pupils,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  violations  of  discipline,  by  the  imposition  of  the  heaviest  pen 
alties.  Such  offences  as  hazing  or  going  ashore  without  leave  are  im- 
possible. The  constant  watch,  the  isolation  of  the  ship,  and  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  Prefet  Maritime  in  and  about  the  port  effectually  pre- 
vent any  co-operation  of  outside  persons  in  an  attempt  to  go  ashore 
without  leave.  The  penalty  for  disobeying  the  orders  of  a  sentry  is  the 
cachot,  a  penalty  which  no  one  who  has  once  undergone  it  would  care  to 
run  the  risk  of  repeating.  The  features  of  the  system  that  make  the 
discipline  so  perfect,  from  a  military  point  of  view,  are  those  which  tell 
most  severely  on  the  students.  In  considering  its  effects  upon  the  lat- 
ter, however,  considerable  allowance  must  be  made  for  peculiarities  of 
national  character  and  modes  of  thought.  Certainly  the  colorless  life 
of  the  Borda,  its  close  confinement,  its  constant  supervision,  and  the 
absence  of  all  that  gives  charm  or  variety  to  existence  would  be  intol- 
erable to  an  American  or  English  boy  of  the  age  of  the  French  eleves. 


138  NAVAL-  EDUCATION— FRANCE. 

6.— FEES  AND  ACCOUNTS. 

As  in  other  French  Government  schools,  and  as  in  most  naval  schools 
in  Europe,  the  pupils  in  the  Borda  are  required  to  pay  the  expenses  at- 
tending their  maintenance  during  the  period  of  education.  The  regular 
fees  are  700  francs  a  year  for  board  (pension),  and  1,000  francs  for  outfit 
(trousseau).  The  board  is  payable  quarterly  in  advance;  the  outfit  in 
two  payments,  800  francs  at  admission  and  200  francs  at  the  beginning 
of  the  second  school  year.  The  amount  for  board  may  be  paid  either  at 
the  treasury  in  Paris  or  at  the  office  of  the  receiver  of  finances  in  the  de- 
partments, and  the  authorities  at  the  school  have  no  control  of  it,  nor 
does  it  even  pass  through  their  hands.  The  other  payment  is  made  di- 
rectly to  the  treasurer  of  the  school,  and  is  expended  by  him  in  the  pur- 
chase of  the  articles  prescribed  by  regulation.  The  weekly  allowance 
of  students  and  the  cost  of  certain  personal  services  of  a  minor  character 
are  also  paid  from  this  source.  All  the  required  articles  are  procured 
by  the  administrative  officer  of  the  school  without  the  intervention  of 
the  student;  and  though  he  is  allowed  to  keep  the  clothing  brought  from 
home  that  conforms  to  the  regulations,  no  deduction  is  made  on  this  ac- 
count from  the  required  deposit.  So  far  from  this,  he  is  even  obliged  to 
give  up  all  the  money  remaining  in  his  possession  after  his  arrival,  which 
is  deposited  in  the  school  treasury  and  credited  to  him  on  the  books, 
being  expended  from  time  to  time  to  meet  any  extra  expenses  that  may 
be  incurred  for  him.  Any  balance  in  his  favor  at  the  close  of  the  course 
is  turned  over  to  him  at  the  final  settlement. 

Exemption  from  the  payment  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  pension  or 
the  trousseau,  or  both,  is  granted  to  persons  who  are  too  poor  to  pay 
them,  upon  application.  The  application  must  be  sent  in  by  the  1st  of 
August  to  the  prefect  of  the  department,  by  whom  it  is  forwarded  to 
the  Ministry  of  Marine,  with  an  attestation  of  the  municipal  council  of 
the  place  where  the  applicant  resides;  a  statement  giving  detailed  in- 
formation in  regard  to  his  means  of  support,  the  number  of  children  or 
persons  dependent  on  him,  and  an  extract  from  the  tax-list.  The  appli- 
cations, with  the  other  documents,  are  referred  to  the  council  of  instruc- 
tion of  the  Naval  School ;  and,  according  to  their  decision,  the  whole  or 
some  part  of  the  customary  charges  is  remitted.  A  similar  arrangement 
may  be  made  with  reference  to  the  outfit  at  graduation,  which  costs  570 
francs.  The  number  of  pupils  receiving  assistance  (boursiers)  in  one  shape 
or  another  is  not  limited,  but  it  amounts  to  about  one-fourth  of  the 
whole  number  at  school. 

The  accounts  of  the  school  with  the  pupils  or  their  families,  and  with  the 
general  disbursing  officer  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  are  in  the  charge  of 
the  council  of  administration,  and  more  particularly  of  the  commissariat 
officer.  The  charges  against  pupils  are  as  follows :  * 

I.  Ordinary  expenses : 
1.  Outfit,  including  clothes,  books,  instruments,  &c. 

*These  charges  are  all  iii  addition  to  the  pension,  which  goes  directly  to  the  treasury. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL. 

2.  Personal  service  of  certain  kinds,  including  bootblack,  barber,  small  repairs  of 

clothing. 

3.  The  weekly  allowance  of  If.  25c  (25  cents). 

(All  the  above,  except  3,  are  covered  by  the  indemnity  for  trousseau,  in  the  case  of 
beneficiaries.) 

II.  Extraordinary  expenses : 

Injury  to  public  property,  and  books  or  clothing  lost  or  prematurely  destroyed. 

III.  Optional  expenses : 

Lessons  in  fencing,  dancing,  or  other  accomplishments  (lemons  cFagre'ment.) 
Pocket-money  on  the  practice  cruise. 

The  items  chargeable  on  the  accounts  of  the  school  against  the  naval 
appropriation  are  for  the  students'  mess  and  washing,  the  indemnities 
for  trousseaux,  the  extra  pay  of  warrant  and  petty  officers,  and  the  small 
running  expenses.  All  purchases  are  submitted  to  one  of  three  boards 
of  inspection.  Of  all  these  boards  the  senior  lieutenant  is  the  presiding 
officer,  and  the  commissary  is  a  member.  The  third  member  is  the  senior 
medical  officer  for  the  inspection  of  provisions,  a  professor  for  books  and 
instruments,  and  a  chief  of  section  for  articles  of  outfit. 

7. — PRACTICE  CRUISE. 

The  final  practice  cruise  begins  immediately  after  the  close  of  the  vaca- 
tion following  the  two  years'  course  in  the  Borda.  Though  the  prac- 
tice-ship is  independent  of  the  captain  of  the  Borda,  it  may  be  consid- 
ered as  in  some  sense  a  part  of  the  same  general  establishment.  Both 
are  under  the  direction  of  the  Prefet  Maritime,  and  the  captains  of  both 
are  members  of  the  committee  on  improvement  at  the  Naval  School. 
The  practice-ship  is  the  Flore,  a  screw-steamer,  first  class,  of  18  gunsr 
and  engines  of  380  horse-power.  The  duration  of  the  cruise  is  about  ten 
months,  from  the  1st  of  October  to  the  latter  part  of  July.  It  is  followed 
by  a  week  of  examination,  after  which  the  ship  remains  at  Brest  for  six 
weeks  preparing  for  another  cruise. 

The  cruismg-ground  of  the  Flore  is  generally  among  the  French  West 
India  Islands.  The  course  of  instruction  includes  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  steam-engineering,  gunnery,  seamanship,  navigation,  hydrog- 
raphy, and  landing  drill.  The  students  perform  duty  in  turn  as  offi- 
cers of  the  deck,  under  supervision,  and  work  the  ship.  A  thorough 
practical  course  is  given  in  steam-engineering.  The  details  of  the  pro- 
gramme are  somewhat  varied  from  year  to  year,  but  it  always  includes 
the  subjects  mentioned,  and  generally  some  others  ;  among  them,  naval 
hygiene,  taught  by  the  surgeon,  and  drawing,  by  a  master  specially  ap- 
pointed. Last  year,  instruction  was  given  in  gymnastics  by  an  ensign. 

On  passing  the  examination,  the  graduates  of  the  Flore  become  aspi- 
rants of  the  first  class,  or  midshipmen,  and  they  are  shortly  after  sent  to 
sea  in  cruising-ships.  They  remain  in  this  grade  two  years,  making  a 
total  of  five  years  from  their  admission  to  the  service  to  their  promotion 
to  the  grade  of  ensign. 


CHAPTEK     XV. 

THE  ENGINEERS'  SCHOOL  (Ecole  d>  application  du  Genie  Maritime). 

The  School  of  Engineers  (constructors)  at  Cherbourg  is  simple  in  its 
organization,  as  would  be  expected  from  the  small  number  both  of  stu- 
dents and  professors.  The  classes  are  two  in  number,  and  are  composed 
of  from  three  to  six  members,  averaging  about  four.  The  school  is  under 
the  general  supervision  of  the  Prefet  Maritime,  and  is  inspected  from  time 
to  time  by  the  inspector-general  of  the  corps  of  engineers.  At  its  head 
is  a  constructing  engineer  as  director.  Changes  in  organization  are  con- 
sidered by  the  committee  on  improvements  (Conseil  de Perfectionnement), 
composed  of  a  vice  admiral  as  president,  the  inspector-general  of  engi 
neers,  the  director  and  subdirector  of  the  school,  a  director  of  naval 
construction  or  other  superior  officer  of  engineers,  and  a  captain.  The 
€ommittee,  with  the  exception  of  the  subdirector,  acts  also  as  a  board  of 
examiners,  and  conducts  the  final  examinations  of  each  class. 

The  personnel  of  the  school  consists  of  the  director,  two  constructing 
engineers  of  lower  rank,  and  two  civil  professors,  one  of  them  for  in- 
struction in  English,  the  other  in  freehand  drawing.  This  is  the  whole 
teaching  staff.  The  director  has  personal  charge  of  one  course  of  lec- 
tures. The  English  professor  gives  three  lessons  a  week,  of  an  hour  and 
a  half  each,  and  the  professor  of  drawing  two  lessons  a  week,  of  two 
hours  each.  The  remaining  courses  are  conducted  by  the  engineer  pro- 
fessors. The  latter  are  appointed  for  five  years,  but  may  be  retained  at 
the  school  three  years  longer,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  director. 
The  engineer  next  in  rank  to  the  commanding  officer  is  called  the  sub' 
director,  and  has  the  charge  of  carrying  out  the  interior  discipline  of 
the  school;  but  owing  to  the  small  number  of  pupils,  the  discipline  is  of 
the  simplest  character.  A  clerk  and  draughtsman  complete  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  establishment. 

The  cost  of  the  school  is  insignificant,  especially  in  comparison  with 
the  important  object  it  fulfils — the  professional  education  of  a  corps  of 
accomplished  naval  constructors.  A  thorough  preparatory  training  in 
physics  and  mathematics  is  given  to  the  pupils  in  their  course  at  the 
Polytechnic ;  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  give  the  principles  already 
learned  the  fullest  and  widest  application  of  which  the  profession  admits. 
The  material  wants  of  the  school  are  largely  supplied  by  the  ordinary 
resources  of  the  arsenal  and  dockyard  at  Cherbourg ;  and  the  teaching 
staff,  as  has  been  stated,  contains  a  minimum  of  special  teachers  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  alone.  A  small  appropriation  is  made  yearly, 


THE  ENGINEERS'  SCHOOL,  141 

upon  estimates  offered  by  the  Conseil  de  Perfectionnement,  for  the  pur- 
chase of  books  and  scientific  journals  for  the  library,  and  for  lithograph- 
ing and  stationery.  The  expenditure  of  this  sum  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
director,  and  is  regularly  accounted  for  by  him.  A  full  collection  of 
models,  plans,  documents,  and  drawings  is  supplied  by  the  department 
of  naval  construction ;  and  beyond  the  small  appropriation  referred  to, 
the  school,  as  such,  is  not  a  source  of  expense  to  the  government. 

The  course  of  instruction  covers  two  years.  The  session  begins  in 
the  month  of  November,  immediately  after  the  close  of  the  final  exam- 
inations ;  the  exact  date  being  fixed  each  year  by  the  director.  The 
course  comprises  theoretical  instruction  in  lectures,  for  seven  or  eight 
months,  and  studies  in  the  dockyard  at  Cherbourg  (first  year),  and  in  the 
national  engine- works  at  Indret  (second  year).  The  courses  are  finished 
on  the  30th  of  June.  The  following  subjects  are  included  in  the  courses : 

Naval  construction. 

Strength  of  materials. 

Naval  architecture. 

Steam-engine. 

Thermodynamics. 

Technology. 

Naval  ordnance. 

Regulation  of  the  compass. 

Accounts. 

English. 

Mechanical  drawing. 

Freehand  drawing. 

Ship  and  engine  drawing. 

As  the  profession  of  naval  construction  is  a  favorite  branch  among 
the  higher  graduates  of  the  Polytechnic — coming  usually  after  mines, 
and  roads  and  bridges — the  pupils  are  selected  men,  and  distinguished 
in  a  high  degree  by  earnestness,  intelligence,  and  thorough  scientific 
attainments,  as  far  as  they  have  gone.  They  enter  the  school  of  appli- 
cation at  the  age  of  twenty  or  twenty-one,  an  age  which  is  most  favor- 
able for  professional  study.  Besides  the  incalculable  advantage  of  a 
sound  preliminary  training,  they  begin  their  professional  course  with 
a  feeling  of  elation  and  encouragement  derived  from  having  already  suc- 
cessfully tested  their  powers.  Their  number  is  large  enough  to  keep  up 
a  generous  emulation,  while  at  the  same  time  their  instructors  are  able 
to  give  the  closest  attention  to  the  wants  of  individuals ;  and  hence 
they  get  all  the  benefits,  with  none  of  the  disadvantages,  of  private 
tuition.  While  the  system  of  instruction,  by  lectures  and  interrogations, 
is  similar  to  that  in  other  French  institutions,  the  interrogations  are 
much  more  frequent  and  personal,  and  each  professor  is  his  own  repeti- 
teur.  The  professional  courses  are  marked  by  great  originality  of  treat- 
ment, and  text-books  serve  only  a  subsidiary  purpose.  At  frequent 
intervals  examinations  (interrogations  generates}  are  held,  which  have  a 


142  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

certain  weight  in  the  final  classification,  though  their  object  is  as  much 
that  of  giving  a  summary  review  as  of  testing  knowledge.  The  hours 
of  instruction  are  from  half-past  eight  to  half-past  ten  in  the  morning, 
and  from  twelve  to  five  in  the  afternoon;  and  attendance  is  always  re- 
quired. 

Practical  instruction,  or  rather  illustrative  instruction,  is  given  during 
the  session,  in  visits  to  the  arsenal  and  workshops,  and  to  vessels  mak- 
ing short  trial  trips.  The  real  practice,  however,  is  given  during  the 
summer.  On  the  1st  of  July  the  students  are  sent  either  to  one  of  the 
naval  ports  or  to  Indret.  Here  they  are  attached  to  the  different  branches 
of  work  in  the  department  of  naval  construction,  and  go  through  a  regu- 
lar course  in  the  yard  or  the  machine-shop.  At  Indret  their  attention  is 
directed  exclusively  to  the  fabrication  of  engines,  and  all  that  is  acces- 
sory to  this  branch  of  the  profession.  The  authorities  are  directed  to 
afford  the  students  every  facility,  and  to  see  that  they  pursue  their 
work  with  assiduity.  The  director  of  the  school  makes  tours  of  inspec- 
tion during  the  summer  to  assure  himself  that  the  students  are  properly 
occupied;  and  the  engineer  professors  are  charged  in  turn  with  the 
direct  supervision  of  their  pupils,  at  the  station  to  which  they  have  been 
sent.  This  has  the  additional  effect  of  giving  the  instructors  an  oppor- 
tunity of  refreshing  and  broadening  their  professional  knowledge,  and 
of  keeping  them  familiar  with  the  latest  developments  of  professional 
science;  and  it  enables  them  to  obtain  easily  the  draughts  and  other 
documents  necessary  for  supplementing  and  revising  their  lectures. 

Before  he  leaves  the  school  in  July  each  student  receives  from  the  di- 
rector detailed  instructions  to  serve  him  as  a  guide  during  his  summer 
work.  Copies  of  these  instructions  are  also  sent  to  the  chief  of  service 
at  the  station  where  the  student  is  to  work.  He  is  required  to  keep 
a  journal  containing  full  descriptions  of  the  work  performed,  and  of 
kindred  matters  coming  under  his  observation,  accompanied  by  draughts 
and  sketches.  These  are  examined  by  the  construction  officer  under 
whose  orders  the  student  is  placed,  and  finally  handed  in  to  the  director 
•of  the  school.  On  his  return  the  whole  of  the  student's  work  is  exam- 
ined and  marked. 

Second-year  students  return  te  Cherbourg  on  the  20th  of  September ; 
and  first-year  students  on  the  10th  of  October,  the  intervening  twenty 
days  being  passed  by  the  latter  in  vacation.  The  time  from  the  reopen- 
ing of  the  school  is  passed  in  preparation  for  the  final  examinations,  which 
begin  on  November  3.  During  this  period  the  upper  class  has  also  a 
special  course  in  ship  and  engine  design. 

Marks  are  given  by  the  board  of  examineVs  at  the  annual  examina- 
tions. The  final  mark  of  the  student  in  each  branch  is  determined  by 
combining  the  mark  of  the  board  with  that  obtained  in  the  school  work 
during  the  course ;  the  former  having  double  weight.  Each  branch  has 
its  coefficient,  which  is  combined  in  the  usual  way  with  the  mark  given 
in  the  subject;  and  the  sum  of  the  products,  together  with  a  mark  for 


THE  EXGINIE:JS 


143 


diligence  and  conduct,  gives  the  final  average  of  the  student.  The 
mark  for  conduct  has  a  low  relative  weight.  The  following  table  ex- 
plains the  system  of  marking  and  gives  the  coefficients  in  each  branch: 


1 

2 
3 
•4 
5 
6 
7 

J 

ID 
11 
1-2 
18 
14 
ir> 
16 
17 
18 
1!) 
20 

Subj<  ct. 

School  mark. 

Relative  weight  of 
school  mark. 

Mark  of  examin- 
ing board. 

Combined  mark. 

Coefficients. 

Final  marks. 

a 
b 
c 
d 

e 

f 

i 

k 
1 
m 
m 
n 
n 
o 

0 

ia 
ib 
t  c 
id 
i  e 
if 

i  i 
M 

1 

U 

i  in 
i  m 
in 
in 
io 
io 

a' 
b' 
c' 
d' 
e' 
f 
K' 
h' 
i' 
}' 

i' 
k' 
i' 

m' 
m' 
n' 
n' 

0' 

o' 

A  =  i  a  +  a' 
B  =  ib+b' 
C  =  i  c  +  c' 
D  =  i  d  +  d' 
E  -  i  e  4-  e' 
F  =  i  f  +  f  ' 
G  —  i  £  4-  «' 

8 
8 
9 
9 
7 
7 
5 
5 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
8 
4.5 
4.5 
2 
2 
1.5 
1.5 

8  A 
8B 
9C 
9D 
7E 
7F 
5G 
5H 
41 
3J 
3J 
3K 
3K 
8L 
4.5M 
4.5M 
2N 
2N 
1.5O 
1.  5O 

H      if  +  E' 

I  —  i  i  4-  i' 

1  English                                            C  first  year   ... 

T    =H    "M! 

J  =  i  .)  +  J 
K  =  i  k  4  k' 

^  ^ii0noi                                             ^  second  year  . 
I  Mechanical  drawing                     I  flrst  J\ear  

5                                                          I  second  year  . 
Ship  and  engine  drawing  

K  =  i  k  4-  k' 
L=il+  1' 
M  =  J  m  4-  m' 
M  =  i  m  +  m' 
N  =  i  n  +  n' 
N  =  i  n  +  n' 
0  =  J  o  +  o' 
O  =  i  o  -(-  o' 

}  Summer  work..                        .   f  fl™t  year  .  .  .  . 

J  second  year  . 
}  Freehand  drawing  .  .               ...  |  flr8t  y,ear 

5                                                          |  second  year  . 
}  Diligence  and  conduct  .  .       .  .  .  f  first  yf  ar     ' 

5                                                          \  second  year  . 

Final  mark  

| 

Sum. 

The  order  of  seniority  of  the  graduating  class  is  fixed  by  the  final  classi- 
fication, according  to  the  system  described ;  and  in  thi3  order  the  en- 
gineer students  are  promoted  to  the  grade  of  assistant  engineer  of  the 
third  class,  as  vacancies  occur.  The  student  who  graduates  from  the 
school  at  the  head  of  his  class  is  sent,  as  a  reward,  to  England,  on  a 
tour  of  scientific  study  and  inspection.  On  his  return  he  presents  a 
report  of  his  observations  to  the  director  of  the  school. 

It  will  be  observed  that  no  provision  is  made  in  the  course  of  con- 
structing engineers  for  a  cruise  on  board  a  ship  of  war.  By  the  old  reg- 
ulations of  1855  constructing  engineers  were  obliged  to  perform  a  certain 
amount  of  sea-service  in  the  lowest  grade  before  promotion ;  and  they 
were  also  sent  to  sea  in  flag-ships  in  the  higher  grades.  This  regulation 
was  abolished  in  1876,  as  it  was  found  that  it  removed  engineers  for  too 
long  a  time  from  the  duties  of  their  profession  on  shore,  without  any 
proportionate  advantage.  The  Minister  of  Marine  still  retains  the  power 
to  send  engineers  to  sea  at  his  discretion ;  but,  as  in  England,  it  is  only 
done  to  a  very  limited  extent  and  for  short  periods. 

At  Cherbourg,  as  at  Greenwich,  provision  is  made  for  the  reception  of 
construction  students  from  civil  life,  either  Frenchmen  or  foreigners, 
under  the  name  of  free  pupils  (eleves  libres).  The  free  pupils  are  re- 
quired to  obtain  permission  to  attend  from  the  Ministry  of  Marine  and 
pass  an  examination  for  admission  ;  and  they  receive  instruction  in  the 
following  courses: 

Ship-building. 
Strength  of  materials. 


144  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

Naval  architecture. 

Marine  engines. 

Thermodynamics. 

Technology. 

Naval  ordnance. 

Regulation  of  the  compass. 

Every  facility  is  given  to  the  free  pupils,  except  that  the  plans  and 
documents  in  the  school  archives  are  not  open  to  their  inspection,  with- 
out special  authorization.  They  receive  a  diploma  at  graduation,  stat- 
ing the  character  and  duration  of  their  course  of  study,  and  the  degree 
of  capacity  they  have  shown. 

Officers  on  duty  at  Cherbourg  are  also  allowed  to  attend  the  lectures 
at  the  school,  upon  receiving  permission  from  the  Prefet. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

THE  TORPEDO  SCHOOL  (Ecole  des  defenses  sous  marines). 

The  establishment  at  Boyardville  has  two  objects,  the  training  of  offi- 
cers and  men  for  the  torpedo-service,  and  the  performance  of  experi- 
ments for  the  development  and  perfection  of,  the  materials  of  this  branch 
of  maritime  warfare.  The  two  functions  are  largely  performed  by  the 
same  officers.  At  the  head  of  the  institution,  but  still  under  the 
orders  of  the  Prefet  Maritime  of  the  district,  is  a  captain,  who  has 
general  direction,  and  who  also  gives  such  courses  of  lectures  as  he  sees 
fit.  Under  him  is  a  commander,  as  senior  executive  aid,  another  com- 
mander in  charge  of  the  courses  of  superior  officers,  and  a  number  of 
lieutenants,  whose  duties  of  instruction  are  divided  between  the  junior 
officers  and  the  instructing  warrant  and  petty  officers.  The  general 
principle  prevails  of  making  instructors  of  various  degrees  at  the  same 
time  students  of  higher  courses  than  they  teach.  Thus  the  lieutenants  give 
lectures  to  the  instructing  warrant  and  petty  officers,  while  the  latter 
teach  the  men,  under  the  supervision  of  the  lieutenants,  or  of  ensigns 
pursuing  the  officers'  course.  In  general,  instructors  of  all  grades  are 
selected  from  those  who  have  been  students,  very  often  immediately 
after  they  have  received  their  certificates ;  and  in  recognition  of  their 
special  qualifications,  they  all  receive  extra  pay  while  performing  this 
duty. 

Apart  from  the  commissioned  officers,  the  instructing  force  consists  of 
two  first  masters  (warrant  officers),  one  belonging  to  the  corps  of  gun  • 
ners,  the  other  to  that  of  helmsmen.  The  latter  has  charge  of  the  in- 
struction of  men  in  physics  and  in  telegraphy,  having  an  expert  as 
assistant  in  the  latter  branch.  Besides  these,  there  are  several  warrant 
and  petty  officers,  of  the  corps  of  gunners,  helmsmen,  and  machinists, 
according  to  the  number  of  pupils ;  but  at  least  half  of  these  must 
always  be  of  the  gunnery  branch.  The  workshop  is  in  charge  of  a 
principal  mechanician  or  first  master  machinist. 

The  board  of  instruction  (conseil  d 'instruction)  is  composed  of  the 
captain  as  president,  the  two  commanders,  the  lieutenant  in  charge  of 
the  officers'  course,  and  one  of  the  lieutenants  in  charge  of  the  course 
for  men.  It  prepares  programmes  of  study,  and  revises  the  official 
manual  of  torpedoes.  The  course  of  study  is  both  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical. Marks  are  given  by  the  captain  for  the  work  performed  by  the 
officer  students.  This  work  consists  of  notes  of  lectures,  practical  ex- 
periments, and  the  preparation  of  essays  or  discussions  on  subjects 
relating  to  torpedoes.  An  officer  unconnected  with  the  school,  either  an 
admiral  or  captain,  is  detailed  to  conduct  the  examination  at  the  close 
S.  Ex.  51 10 


146  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

of  the  course,  on  the  passing  of  which  depends  the  certificate  necessary 
for  a  torpedo-officer. 

The  course  for  superior  officers  (captains  and  commanders)  lasts  five 
months,  beginning  May  1  and  November  1 ;  that  for  lieutenants  and 
ensigns  is  six  months,  beginning  April  1  and  October  1.  Torpedo  offi- 
cers (officiers  torpilleurs)  stationed  regularly  at  the  seaports  are  sent 
once  every  three  years  for  the  five  months'  course.  The  course  for  war- 
rant officers,  petty  officers,  and  men  lasts  six  months,  beginning  Janu- 
ary 1,  April  1,  July  1,  and  October  1,  so  that  there  are  always  at  the 
school  a  division  in  the  first  half,  and  another  in  the  second  half  of  the 
course.  The  pupils  in  this  course  are  selected  by  a  board  of  officers 
appointed  for  the  purpose  at  each  port.  The  candidates  must  be  men 
of  good  record  as  to  conduct,  and  of  a  certain  intelligence  and  aptitude  ; 
and  they  must  belong  to  one  of  the  three  corps  of  gunners,  helmsmen, 
and  machinists,  or  to  the  seamanship  branch  (manoeuvre}.  They  are  ex- 
amined upon  their  arrival  at  the  school,  and  sent  back  if  found  dis- 
qualified. At  the  end  of  the  course  they  pass  an  examination,  and 
receive  certificates  of  their  fitness  for  torpedo  duty.  The  best  men  are 
promoted  at  the  end  of  each  course,  the  choice  being  determined  by  a 
board  of  officers  (conseil  d'avancement)  at  the  school. 

The  practical  researches  and  experiments  with  the  torpedo  are  con- 
ducted by  a  board  known  as  the  Commission  permanente  tf  experiences. 
It  consists  of  the  members  of  the  board  of  instruction,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  an  assistant  engineer  (constructor),  and  a  captain  of  marine 
artillery.  The  lieutenants  in  charge  of  the  course  of  instructing  warrant 
and  petty  officers  are  admitted  with  a  consulting  voice  only.  All  offi- 
cers pursuing  courses  at  the  school  have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to 
attend  discussions  and  witness  experiments  of  the  permanent  commission. 

A  late  decree  (March  14,  1878)  fixes  the  course  for  machinists  in 
Whitehead  torpedoes  at  four  months,  beginning  January  1,  May  1,  and 
September  1,  of  each  year.  Still  another  decree  (April  4,  1878)  has 
added  to  the  list  of  pupils  in  each  course  an  assistant  constructing 
engineer  and  a  variable  number  of  foremen  and  other  officers  of  dock- 
yard  works  (maistrance  des  arsenaux).  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  direction  of  naval  constructions  at  the  dock-yards  is  charged 
with  the  safe-keeping  and  delivery  of  torpedo  materials;  and  it  is  there- 
fore highly  important  that  there  should  be  officers  connected  with  the 
corps  of  constructors  who  understand  their  properties. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  MACHINISTS  (Ecole  theorique  et  pratique  des  mecan- 

,          iciens). 

The  school  of  machinists  is  situated  at  Toulon.  It  was  established 
by  the  decree  of  February  13,  ]  879,  and  took  the  place  of  the  two  schools 
that  formerly  existed  for  a  similar  purpose  at  Brest  and  at  Toulon. 

The  superior  officers  at  the  head  of  the  school  are  a  captain  and  com- 
mander. The  instructors  are  composed  of  (1)  professors  of  hydrography, 
for  the  scientific  courses ;  (2)  principal  mechanicians  and  first  master 
machinist,  for  the  technical  courses ;  and  (3)  a  first  master  machinist, 
to  direct  the  workshop  instruction.  The  first  are  selected  by  the  Min- 
ister of  Marine,  and  the  last  by  the  commandant  of  the  school.  A  novel 
feature  is  introduced  in  the  appointment  of  the  other  class,  in  the  require- 
ment of  an  examination  for  the  position  of  instructor.  Examinations  of 
applicants  are  held  yearly  at  Toulon,  by  the  permanent  commission  for 
the  examination  of  machinists.  Lists  are  kept  of  those  who  pass,  and 
from  these  lists  the  instructors  are  selected.  The  subjects  of  the  exam- 
ination include  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  elementary  descriptive 
geometry,  physics,  mechanics,  and  the  steam-engine.  The  instructors, 
or  professors  as  they  are  called,  are  assisted  by  master  or  second  master 
machinists  in  the  capacity  of  repetiteurs. 

The  pupils  attheschool  consist  of  firemen  artificers  (ouvriers  chauffeurs), 
candidates  for  promotion  to  quartermaster  machinists ;  of  quartermasters 
and  machinist  pupils  (eleves  mecaniciens),  candidates  for  second  mas- 
ters ;  and  of  second  masters,  candidates  for  first  masters.  The  course 
for  the  firemen  artificers  is  six  months  ;  for  all  the  other  classes  one  year. 
Competitive  examinations  for  promotion  are  held  at  the  end  of  each 
course.  There  are  two  "commencements"  or  dates  of  entry  in  each 
year,  on  May  1  and  November  1.  By  this  arrangement  two  classes  in 
each  category  of  candidates  (except  the  six  months'  pupils)  are  always 
together  at  the  school;  one  class  in  the  first  half,  the  other  in  the  last 
half  of  the  course. 

Admission  to  the  school  is  only  obtained  after  passing  a  double  ex- 
amination :  first,  at  the  shore  station  or  on  board  the  ship  where  the 
candidate  is  employed  for  the  time  being,  and,  secondly,  at  the  school 
itself.  Twice  a  year  the  five  Prefets  Maritimes,  and  the  commanders-in- 
chief  of  the  various  squadrons,  send  to  the  Ministry  lists  of  the  names 
of  machinists  of  all  grades  whom  they  propose  for  admission  to  the 
school.  The  lists  are  drawn  up  after  an  examination  of  candidates  in 
the  arrondissement  or  squadron,  conducted  by  a  board  composed  of  <t 
line  officer,  a  constructing  engineer,  and  a  principal  mechanician.  A 


148  NAVAL  EDUCATION FRANCE. 

good-conduct  record,  and  a  certain  period  of  sea-service,  the  latter  vary- 
.  ing  according  to  the  grade  of  the  candidate,  are  essential  qualifications 
for  admission  to  the  official  lists;  and  the  board  graduates  the  candi- 
dates according  to  their  professional  capacity.  The  classified  lists  are 
sent  to  Paris  twenty  days  before  the  half-yearly  dates  of  admission,  and 
from  them  the  Minister  of  Marine  makes  a  selection  according  to  the 
number  of  pupils  for  whom  provision  is  made  at  the  school.  The  se- 
lected candidates  are  sent  in  detachments  to  Toulon,  where  they  under- 
go the  final  examination  for  admission,  conducted  by  the  authorities  of 
the  school.  Candidates  failing  at  this  examination  are  sent  back  to 
their  divisions. 

The  method  of  instruction  is  similar  to  that  at  other  French  schools. 
Courses  of  lectures  are  given  by  professors,  and  full  synopses  of  each 
lecture,  covering  all  the  material  points,  in  fact  sometimes  the  whole 
lecture  itself,  are  delivered  to  the  students.  These  are  the  well-known 
feuilles  autographiees  that  have  already  been  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  Polytechnic  School  and  the  Borda.  Further  instruction  is 
given  and  recitations  are  held  on  the  subjects  of  the  lectures  by  the 
repetiteurs,  and  marks  are  given  at  the  recitations.  Theoretical  instruc- 
tion consists  of  the  following  subjects  *  : 
Candidates  for  first  master : 

1.  Arithmetic,  elementary  algebra,  geometry,  and  plane  trigonometry. 

2.  Mechanics  and  physics. 

3.  Theory  and  description  of  engines. 

4.  Management  of  engines. 

5.  Repair  and  preservation  of  engines. 

6.  Erection  of  engines. 

7.  Regulation  of  engine- work. 

Candidates  for  the  grade  of  second  master,  and  machinist  pupils, 
have  a  course  in  the  same  subjects,  omitting  algebra  and  trigonometry. 
Candidates  for  quartermasters  omit  also  subjects  2, 6,  and  7.  This  grade, 
as  well  as  that  of  second  master,  is  divided  into  two  branches,  the  theo- 
retical and  the  practical ;  and  the  course  for  candidates  for  the  latter 
branch  is  more  limited  than  the  other.  For  example,  candidates  for 
practical  quartermasters  have  no  lectures  at  all,  and  those  for  practical 
second  masters  have  a  special  limited  course  in  mathematics,  and  omit 
the  lectures  on  the  management  and  the  erection  of  engines  altogether. 
For  all  students,  there  are  classes  in  mechanical  drawing  and  in  shop- 
work  ;  and  one  day  in  the  week  is  devoted  to  visits  made  by  the  stu- 
dents in  company  with  their  instructors  to  ships  of  the  reserve,  to  ships 
in  construction  or  making  trial  trips,  and  to  workshops. 

The  examinations  for  promotion  are  competitive  and  are  conducted  by 
a  board  composed  of  a  captain,  a  commander,  a  constructing  engineer, 
a  hydrographic  examiner  or  professor,  and  a  principal  mechanician.  The 
members  of  the  board  are  appointed  for  two  years,  but  they  continue  to 

*  Detailed  programmes  of  the  course  are  given  in  the  Appendix,  Note  L. 


THE    SCHOOL    OF    MACHINISTS.  149 

perform  during 'the  period  such  other  shore  duty  as  may  be  assigned  to 
them.    While  actually  conducting  the  examinations  they  have  the  priv- 
ileges and  emoluments  attached  to  special  service. 
The  examination  consists  of  three  parts — 

(1)  A  piece  of  manual  work,  in  boiler-making,  forging,  or  fitting. 
This  is  not  required  in  the  examination  for  the  highest  grade. 

(2)  A  scale-drawing,  of  objects  more  or  less  difficult  according- to  the 
class  examined,  as  follows: 

Candidates  for  quartermasters,  a  simple  part  of  the  machinery,  as  a 
crank,  cock,  or  beam. 

Candidates  for  second  masters,  and  machinist  pupils,  an  apparatus 
or  complex  part  of  the  machinery,  as  a  piston,  pump,  or  donkey-engine. 

Candidates  for  first  masters,  a  complete  engine  or  boiler. 

(3)  An  oral  examination,  on  the  subjects  of  the  theoretical  course. 
The  exact  subjects  of  the  examination  may  be  seen  in  the  detailed  pro- 
grammes of  the  courses,  given  in  the  appendix.    Bach  candidate  draws  a 
question  from  each  chapter  of  the  programme  for  his  grade ;  and  a  sup- 
plementary question,  also  selected  from  the  programme,  is  given  by  the 
president.    This  somewhat  imperfect  form  of  examination  is  supple- 
mented in  the  case  of  candidates  for  the  highest  grade  by  a  written 
paper  on  a  single  question  given  to  all  the  candidates.    The  candidates 
of  all  grades  also  answer  questions  on  the  management  of  engines,  taken 
from  the  supplementary  programmes.    No  limit  is  fixed  to  the  number 
of  these  supplementary  questions ;  and  the  mark  of  the  candidate  in 
the  branch  of  management  of  engines  is  obtained  by  combining  the 
mark  for  his  first  answers  with  those  of  the  supplementary  questions. 
For  machinist  pupils,  all  the  questions  are  selected  by  the  commis- 
sion, and  the  two  questions  are  given  on  each  of  the  first  two  chapters. 
Candidates  for  the  practical  masters  and  quartermasters  pass  a  limited 
examination,  based  on  the  limited  course  pursued  at  the  school. 

The  system  of  marking  is  somewhat  complicated,  and  it  will  hardly 
be  necessary  to  go  into  its  details.  The  drawing,  manual  work,  and  each 
theoretical  subject  count  equally  in  determining  the  final  mark.  Addi- 
tional marks  (points  supplementaires)  are  given  in  recognition  of  re- 
markable professional  aptitude,  and  of  previous  good  service.  Upon 
the  arrangement  of  the  candidates  in  the  final  class-list  depends  their 
seniority,  and  therefore  the  order  of  their  promotion ;  but  those  who  fall 
below  a  certain  standard — and  quite  a  high  standard — are  not  entered  at 
all  upon  the  lists  for  promotion. 

The  extent  and  character  of  the  course  may  be  seen  from  the  pro- 
grammes of  study.  These  programmes,  as  they  stand,  contain  the  ques- 
tions given  in  the  examinations,  each  paragraph  representing  a  ques- 
tion, any  one  of  which  may  be  drawn  by  a  candidate.  The  programmes 
may  therefore  be  depended  on  as  an  exact  statement  of  the  course  of 
study. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  SCHOOLS  FOR  COMMISSARY  PUPILS  (Cours  d' 'administration  des 

Sieves  commissaires). 

The  schools  for  commissary  pupils  are  at  the  various  naval  ports, 
whither  the  pupils  are  seut  upon  their  admission  to  the  service.  The 
instructors  are  a  professor  and  assistant  professor  at  each  station,  both 
of  whom  are  officers  of  the  pay  or  commissariat  corps  of  the  navy. 
The  course  lasts  two  years,  and  the  session  begins  on  the  3d  of  Novem- 
ber in  each  year  and  ends  on  the  30th  of  September  following.  During 
this  period  instruction  is  given  on  at  least  three  days  in  the  week.  Be- 
sides the  courses  in  naval  administration,  pupils  are  required  to  pursue 
the  course  of  study  in  the  English  language,  which  is  opened  at  all  the 
naval  ports  for  the  benefit  of  officers  generally;  unless  they  can  give 
adequate  proof  of  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  either  English  or 
Spanish.  The  courses  in  naval  administration  are  as  follows : 

I.— GENERAL   VIEW. 

1.  The  Navy;  its  purpose;  the  mercantile  marine  and  its  relations  with  the  Navy  ; 

French  establishments  abroad. 

2.  The  ministry  of  marine  and  of  the  colonies. 

3.  General  organization  of  naval  arsenals  and  other  establishments. 

4.  *  Organization  of  the  colonies. 

5.  Composition  and  organization  of  the  various  corps  in  the  navy. 

6.  Legal  status  of  an  officer  of  the  Navy. 

7.  Recruitment  of  the  naval  forces. 

II. — MARITIME   JUSTICE,  t 
III. — COMMISSARIAT  SERVICE. 

1.  The  commissary-general, 
i?.  Maritime  inscription. 

a.  Organization,  classification,  drafts. 

b.  *  Maritime  police. 

c.  *  Right  of  domain  in  territorial  waters. 

d.  *  Coast  fisheries. 

e.  *  Wrecks. 

/.  Naval  pensioners  (Etablisaement  des  Invalides  dj  la  Marine), 
(j.  *  Pensions  and  compassionate  allowances. 

3.  Duties  of  commissary  officers  in  connection  with  surveys  or  boards  of  audit,  in 

relation  to 

a.  Staff  officers,  foremen  of  dockyard  works,  and  other  officials. 

b.  *  The  administration  and  accounts  of  the  different  corps. 

4.  Armaments. 

5.  Administrative  service  at  sea. 

*  The  starred  subjects  are  those  taught  during  the  second  year  of  the  course. 
tThis  subject  enters  only  into  the  examination  for  higher  grades. 


THE    SCHOOLS    FOR    COMMISSARY    PUPILS.  151 

6.  Stores. 

7.  Provisions. 

8.  Hospitals  and  prisons. 

9.  Public  works. 

a.  Laborers. 

b.  Accountability  for  material  (1)  oil  shipboard,  (2)*  in  the  arsenals. 

c.  Purchases. 

10.  Organization  of  central  offices  of  sous-arroudissements. 
11    Financial  accountability  and  details  of  expenditure.! 
12.  *  Accountability  for  provisions  and  stores. 

Commissary  pupils  attend  the  courses  for  both  years ;  those  of  the 
first  year  only  are  attended  by  the  assistant  commissaries  appointed 
from  ensigns  and  from  graduates  of  the  Polytechnic  School. 

The  courses  of  the  second  year  are  practical  as  well  as  theoretical. 
During  this  year  it  is  the  special  charge  of  the  assistant  professor  to 
instruct  his  pupils  in  the  application  of  principles  and  methods  to  the 
actual  duties  of  the  corps.  Written  exercises  are  performed  by  the  stu- 
dents under  his  direction,  bearing  upon  every  detail  of  the  commissariat 
service,  especially  at  sea.  The  professor  is  required  to  conduct  the 
pupils  to  the  various  workshops  and  storehouses  to  instruct  them  in  the 
details  of  business  connected  with  the  reception  and  inspection  of  stores, 
supplies,  and  equipments,  and  every  facility  is  given  him  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  work.  Outside  of  lecture  hours  the  pupils  perform  sub- 
ordinate duties  in  the  various  branches  of  the  commissariat  department 
of  the  station;  in  which  they  are  subject  to  quarterly  transfers  to  famil- 
iarize them  with  all  the  parts  of  their  profession. 

Interrogations  take  place  frequently,  and  examinations  are  held  at 
the  end  of  each  year,  before  a  board  composed  of  the  commissary-gen- 
eral of  the  marine,  an  officer  of  inspection,  and  three  commissariat  offi- 
cers. The  examinations  are  both  written  and  oral ;  marks  are  given, 
and  the  final  classification  determines  the  order  of  seniority.  Fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  maximum  aggregate  is  required  in  order  to  pass,  and  can- 
didates who  fail  are  allowed  to  go  over  a  second  time  the  course  for  the 
year. 

It  should  be  added  that  complete  special  libraries,  composed  of  works 
pertaining  directly  or  indirectly  to  matters  connected  with  the  commis- 
sariat service,  are  to  be  found  in  each  port,  and  that  they  are  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  students. 

*  Second-year  course. 

tThis  subject  enters  only  into  the  examination  for  higher  grades. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  FRENCH  SYSTEM. 

It  was  remarked  by  Captain  Hore,  the  naval  attach 6  of  the  English 
embassy  in  Paris,  in  his  testimony  before  the  Committee  on  the  Higher 
Education  of  Officers,  in  1870,  that  the  English  had  no  system  of  naval 
education,  and  that  the  French  had  too  much  system.  That  there  is 
much  truth  in  the  first  part  of  the  observation  will  be  acknowledged  by 
every  one  who  has  examined  the  matter  at  all,  and  Captain  Hore,  being 
himself  an  English  officer,  was  in  a  position  to  know.  But  his  judgment 
upon  the  French  system  must  be  taken  with  some  allowance,  and  cer- 
tainly his  testimony  before  the  committee  does  not  indicate  such  an 
acquaintance  with  the  subject  as  would  entitle  his  opinion  to  great 
weight. 

The  fault  of  "  too  much  system,"  if  it  means  anything,  means  a  sacri- 
fice of  results  to  methods,  an  effort  which  looks  rather  to  the  perfection 
of  the  machinery  than  to  the  work  done  by  the  machine.  It  is  a  fault 
very  commonly  charged  to  French  methods  of  administration,  and  one 
to  which,  perhaps,  they  are  largely  open.  It  is  a  necessary  consequence 
of  extreme  centralization,  and  it  affects  to  some  extent  the  system  of  pub- 
lic education,  including  both  the  secondary  and  the  professional  schooLs. 
Its  injurious  effects  are  felt,  however,  rather  in  minor  details  and  in  ex- 
ceptional instances  than  in  the  general  result.  In  most  respects  the 
public-school  system,  although  highly  organized,  is  sufficiently  elastic  to 
meet  the  wants  of  individual  cases.  As  to  the  training-schools  for  this 
or  that  professional  service,  and  especially  for  a  military  service,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  a  flexible  system  is  as  productive  of  good  results  as  a 
more  rigid  one ;  and  in  the  French  naval  schools  there  is  certainly  in 
matters  of  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  much  greater  flexibility 
than  is  to  be  found  in  those  of  almost  any  other  nation.  The  system  of 
oral  teaching,  without  the  restrictions  of  a  text-book  and  supplemented 
by  individual  explanation  and  interrogation,  cannot  be  other  than  an 
elastic  one.  With  regard  to  discipline,  however,  it  must  be  confessed 
that  if  French  boys  are  at  all  like  other  boys,  a  great  many  rules  might 
be  relaxed  with  direct  and  positive  benefit. 

The  broad  features  of  the  French  system -of  naval  education  may  be 
readily  recognized  from  the  detailed  description  that  has  been  given. 
They  consist  in  a  unity  of  purpose  underlying  the  whole  plan ;  a  rational 
organization,  with  a  distinct  perception  of  the  ends  in  view,  and  an 
adaptation  of  means  to  reach  the  ends  proposed  ;  the  exaction  of  a  high 
standard  of  preparatory  training ;  and  great  originality,  freedom,  and 
thoroughness  of  instruction.  Looking  at  the  details,  we  find,  in  the  case 


GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  FRENCH  SYSTEM.     153 

of  line  officers,  a  system  of  local  examinations  for  admission,  competitive 
in  character,  with  requirements  based  on  the  programmes  of  the  best 
schools  in  the  country.  These  are  followed  by  a  three  years'  course  of 
theoretical  and  practical  training.  The  first  two  years  are  passed  in  a 
stationary  ship,  with  all  the  disadvantages  that  such  a  school  house 
entails — disadvantages  in  this  case  even  greater  than  in  that  of  the 
Britannia.  The  only  compensating  advantage  is  that  of  making  pos- 
sible an  excessively  rigorous  discipline,  an  advantage  of  more  than 
doubtful  character.  The  course  of  theoretical  instruction  is  the  fullest 
and  most  advanced  required  course  pursued  by  the  cadets  of  any 
navy  in  the  world  except  that  of  Germany,  and  the  practical  and  pro- 
fessional branches  receive  an  ample  share  of  time  and  attention,  although 
the  course  in  these  subjects  is  rightly  considered  as  only  preparatory  to 
the  work  of  the  practice-ship.  It  is,  nevertheless,  extensive  and 
thorough,  including  frequent  exercise  in  the  details  of  seamanship,  gun- 
nery, navigation,  and  the  manipulation  of  engines.  Following  the  two 
years'  course  comes  the  third  and  final  year  in  a  sea-going  practice-ship, 
with  review  and  completion  of  the  course,  in  the  theory  and  practice  of 
subjects  purely  professional. 

The  other  corps  of  the  service  are  as  well  taught  as  the  line  in  the 
particular  duties  of  their  several  professions ;  for  it  may  be  taken  as  a 
cardinal  maxim  of  professional  education  in  France  that  a  man  cannot 
be  expected  to  know  how  to  do  a  thing  by  a  process  of  inspiration  or 
intuition,  or  even  by  "picking  up,"  but  that  he  must  be  taught  to  do  it. 
Hence,  they  have  a  thorough  course  of  instruction  for  the  men  who  are 
to  build  their  ships,  to  fight  their  ships,  to  govern  the  employment  of 
the  motive  power  of  their  ships,  to  conduct  the  details  of  internal  ad- 
ministration on  board  their  ships.  The  constructors  have  a  four  years' 
course :  two  years  at  the  Polytechnic,  the  first  school  of  mathematics  in 
the  world,  and  two  years  at  their  special  school  of  application,  with 
practice  in  the  great  ship-building  and  engine-building  establishments. 
The  engineers  or  mechanicians  have  a  series  of  courses  and  examinations 
preceding  each  promotion,  whose  extent  and  character  leave  little  to  be 
desired  for  this  branch  of  the  profession.  Finally,  the  administrative 
officers  or  commissaries  are  taught  effectually  the  principles,  the  laws, 
and  regulations  which  are  to  govern  them  in  the  future  exercise  of  their 
duties. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  education  given  to  officers  in  general  is  of  a 
high  and  extensive  character.  This  supplies  the  want  of  special  sub- 
sequent training  to  some  extent,  but  not  wholly.  There  is  a  decided 
need  at  present  of  facilities  fox  higher  education  in  the  branches  which 
particular  inclinations  may  lead  individual  line  officers  to  take  up.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  such  a  higher  college,  similar  in  purpose  to  the  half- 
pay  courses  at  Greenwich,  may  in  time  be  established ;  though  there  is 
by  no  means  the  same  necessity  for  it  that  exists  in  England. 


GERMANY. 


CHAPTEE  XX. 

PERSONNEL  OF  THE  GERMAN  NAVY. 

The  executive  or  line  officers  (See-Offiziere)  of  the  German  Navy  are 
divided  into  three  classes :  The  staff  of  the  Admiralty,  whose  duties  are 
connected  with  organization  and  administration ;  the  naval  staff,  com- 
posed of  officers  occupied  with  some  special  branch  of  the  profession ; 
and  the  sea-going  officers,  whose  duties  are  on  shipboard  and  at  naval 
stations. 

The  grades  of  officers,  with  the  numbers  in  each  grade,  are  as  follows : 

LINE  (See-Corps). 

Admiral 1 

Vice-admiral 1 

Rear-admirals 3 

Captains 20 

Commanders  or  captains  of  corvettes 45 

Lieutenant-commanders 74 

Lieutenants 128 

Sub-lieutenants 128 

Midshipmen  (See-Cadetten) 100 

Cadets  (about) 50 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS  ( Maschinen-Ingenleur-Corps). 

Chief  mechanical  engineers 2 

Mechanical  engineers 6 

Assistant  mechanical  engineers 12 

The  officers  of  this  corps  are  charged  with  the  management  of  engines  on  board  the 
large  ships. 

PAY  CORPS. 

Paymasters 26 

Assistant  paymasters 26 

MEDICAL  CORPS. 

Surgeon-general 1 

Chief  surgeons 59 

Surgeons 19 

Assistant  surgeons,  first  class 16 

Assistant  surgeons,  second  class 16 

ENGINEER  CORPS. 

I.  Division  of  naval  construction : 

Directors .' 3 

Chief  engineers 4 

Engineers 12 

Assistant  engineers 11 


158  NAVAL    EDUCATION GERMANY. 

II.  Division  of  marine  engines: 

Directors 3 

Chief  engineers 4 

Engineers 11 

Assistant  engineers , 11 

III.  Hydraulic  works : 

Directors 2 

Chief  engineers 3 

There  is  also  the  marine  infantry  (See-Bataillori),  and  there  was  until 
recently  the  marine  artillery ;  but  the  last  has  lately  been  abolished,  and 
its  place  is  to  be  taken  by  the  four  companies  of  seamen-gunners. 

The  total  force  of  petty  officers  and  seamen  make  up  the  two  seamen's 
divisions,  the  first  division  being  stationed  at  Kiel  and  the  second  at 
Wilhelmshafeu.  There  are  also  two  dockyard  divisions,  in  like  manner 
stationed  at  Kiel  and  Wilhelmshafen. 

The  preliminary  steps  in  the  career  of  a  line  officer  in  the  German 
Navy  begin  with  the  application  of  his  parent  or  guardian  for  an  appoint- 
ment. These  applications  are  made  to  the  Admiralty  in  August  and 
September  of  each  year.  In  the  following  spring  the  applicants  present 
themselves  at  Kiel  for  the  entrance  examination.  The  examination  is 
not  competitive,  but  the  standard  for  admission  is  high,  involving  not 
only  the  attainments  called  for  by  the  questions  given,  but  the  previous 
completion  of  a  certain  course  in  the  public  schools — schools  which  are 
unsurpassed  by  any  of  their  kind  in  the  world.  The  successful  candi- 
dates are  appointed  cadets  in  the  Navy,  and  embarked  immediately  on 
board  the  cadets'  practice-ship.  The  cruise  lasts  six  months,  and  the 
time  on  board  is  fully  occupied  by  training  in  practical  duties;  no  theo- 
retical instruction  being  given,  except  such  as  is  necessary  by  way  of 
explanation. 

At  the  end  of  the  practice-cruise,  the  cadets  return  to  Kiel  and  join 
the  cadets'  division  at  the  Naval  School.  Here  they  have  a  course  of 
theoretical  instruction  in  professional  and  scientific  subjects.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  course  is  six  months,  from  October  1  to  March  31.  It  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  second  of  the  important  examinations  which  all  officers 
must  pass.  These  are  four  in  number.  The  first  is  the  entrance  exam- 
nation  ;  the  second,  which  follows  the  cadets'  course  at  the  Naval 
School,  is  called  the  midshipmen's  examination,  as  it  is  followed  by  the 
promotion  of  proficient  cadets  to  that  grade;  the  third  and  fourth, 
known  respectively  as  the  first  officers'  examination,  and  the  officers' 
professional  examination,  occur  later  in  the  career  of  officers. 

After  passing  the  examination,  the  newly- promoted  midshipmen  are 
sent  for  a  month  to  the  gunnery-ship  at  Wilhelmshafen.  Early  in  May 
they  are  divided  among  the  ships  of  the  iron-clad  squadron,  where  they 
remain  on  service  during  the  greater  part  of  the  summer.  In  Septem- 
ber or  October  they  are  ordered  back  to  Kiel,  and  embarked  on  board 
the  midshipmen's  school-ship,  of  which  there  are  two  always  in  commis- 
sion, one  of  them  leaving  Kiel  every  year.  The  cruise  lasts  two  years. 


PERSONNEL  OF  THE  GERMAN  NAVY.  159 

The  ship  goes  around  the  world,  but  most  of  the  time  is  generally  spent 
on  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan.  Instruction  is  given  both  in  lessons 
or  recitations  and  exercises,  and  comprehends  a  very  full  programme  of 
theoretical  and  practical  study.  The  regular  officers  of  the  ship  are  the 
instructors. 

At  the  end  of  the  cruise  the  ship  returns  to  Kiel  and  the  midshipmen 
undergo  their  third  examination,  called  the  first  officers'  examination, 
preparatory  to  promotion  to  the  grade  of  sub-lieutenant.  Upon  passing 
this  examination  they  are  subjected  to  another  and  peculiar  test  of  fit- 
ness. Their  names  are  proposed,  one  by  one,  for  approval,  to  the  officers 
attached  at  the  time  to  the  naval  station  at  Kiel.  These  officers,  whose 
number  is  always  considerable,  vote  as  at  any  other  election;  and  an 
unfavorable  result  puts  an  end  to  the  candidate's  career. 

After  passing  this  test  officers  are  promoted  to  sub-lieutenants  as  va- 
cancies occur.  They  return  to  the  Naval  School  (without  waiting  for 
their  promotion)  and  go  through  the  officers'  course.  This  begins  in 
November  and  lasts  a  year.  It  includes  professional  and  scientific  sub- 
jects, among  them  steam-engineering  and  fortification,  besides  all  the 
others  which  were  taught  in  the  cadets'  course.  In  these  last,  the  course 
is  far  more  advanced,  having  progressed  by  regular  and  systematic  steps. 
The  officers'  course  at  the  Naval  School  is  closed  by  the  officers'  profes- 
sional examination,  with  which  the  compulsory  education  of  officers 
comes  to  an  end. 

A  still  higher  course  of  an  extensive  and  elaborate  character,  and 
lasting  three  years,  is  open  to  voluntary  students  at  the  Naval  Academy. 
This  institution,  though  united  with  the  Naval  School  and  under  the 
same  direction,  has  its  specific  object  distinct  from  the  other,  and  its 
students,  being  officers  of  higher  rank  and  attending  the  academy  vol- 
untarily, are  subject  to  separate  regulations. 

The  steps  in  a  naval  officer's  education  may  therefore  be  summarized 
as  follows : 

August,  September:  Application  of  parent  or  guardian. 

First  year : 

April. — Examination  for  admission. 
April  to  September. — Cadets'  practice-cruise. 
October  to  March. — Naval  School :  Cadets'  course. 

Second  year : 

April. — Midshipmen's  examination  :  Promotion  to  midshipman. 
April  to  May. — Gunnery-ship. 
May  to  September. — Iron-clad  squadron. 

Third  year,  fourth  year : 

September  to  September  (two  years). — Midshipmen's  practice-cruise. 
October. — First  officers'  examination. 
Election  at  Kiel. 
Promotion  to  sub-lieutenant  (by  vacancies). 

Fourth  year,  fifth  year  : 
November  to  November. — Naval  School :  Officers'  course. 


160  NAVAL  EDUCATION — GERMANY. 

Fifth  year : 

November. — Officers'  professional  examination. 
Total  period  of  education,  five  and  a  half  years. 

Subsequent  education : 
Voluntary  three-years  course :  Naval  Academy. 

PBOMOTION  OF   SEAMEN  TO  THE   CORPS  OF  OFFICERS. 

Seamen  of  the  German  Navy  who  desire  to  qualify  themselves  for  ad- 
vancement to  the  corps  of  officers  may,  if  they  have  shown  special  fitness, 
be  recommended  for  promotion  by  the  commandant  of  the  seamen's  divis- 
ion to  which  they  belong.  They  are  then  required  to  send  in  the  papers 
presented  by  applicants  for  admission  as  cadets,  and,  in  addition,  a  cer- 
tificate from  a  commanding  officer  (or  merchant  captain)  with  whom 
they  have  served,  as  to  their  conduct,  acquirements,  and  capacity,  and 
a  statement  that  they  have  served  twelve  months  at  sea  in  a  man-of-war 
or  merchant  vessel.  The  examination  for  admission  must  be  held  before 
the  candidate  is  twenty  years  of  age,  and  it  is  governed  by  the  same 
regulations  as  in  the  case  of  cadets.  After  the  examination  the  career 
of  seamen  advanced  to  the  corps  of  officers  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  of- 
ficers themselves. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

ADMISSION. 

Application  for  permission  to  enter  the  Navy  as  cadet  is  made  at  the 
Imperial  Admiralty  in  Berlin,  in  the  months  of  August  and  September 
of  the  year  preceding  the  entrance  examination.  The  application  must 
be  accompanied  by  a  number  of  papers,  such  as  certificates  of  birth,  re- 
ligious creed,  confirmation,  &c. ;  a  full  narrative  of  the  life  of  the  appli- 
cant, written  by  himself  and  duly  attested,  stating  the  schools  he  has 
attended,  his  course  of  study,  changes  of  residence,  illnesses,  German  and 
foreign  works  read  by  him,  and  other  minute  facts;  school  diplomas ;  and 
the  health  certificate  of  a  military  or  naval  surgeon.  The  parent  is  also 
required  to  give  a  bond  to  make  the  deposit  necessary  to  procure  the  first 
outfit  of  his  son,  to  pay  for  his  subsequent  outfits,  and  also  to  make  him 
an  allowance  up  to  the  time  of  his  promotion  to  the  grade  of  lieutenant. 
The  allowance  is  fixed  at  30  marks  (about  $7.50)  per  month.  It  is  paid 
for  the  first  six  months  in  advance,  and  afterwards  in  quarterly  pay- 
ments. It  is  not  paid  directly  to  the  cadet  or  midshipman,  but  to  the 
treasurer  of  the  Naval  School ;  and  it  is  disbursed  by  the  paymaster  who 
h  for  the  time  being,  the  accounts  of  the  cadet.  In  certain  excep- 
tional cases,  as  in  that  of  midshipmen  who  contract  debts  on  the  prac- 
tice-cruise, it  may  be  paid,  like  the  regular  salary,  to  an  officer  designated 
by  the  captain,  and  the  midshipman  has  no  control  over  it  for  the  time 
being,  except  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  officer  who  has  it  in  trust. 

Candidates  must  be  under  seventeen  years  of  age  at  the  date  of 
admission.  Exception  is  made,  however,  in  the  case  of  graduates 
(Abiturienten)  of  the  Gymnasia,  Realschulen  of  the  first-class,  and  similar 
institutions  (that  is,  institutions  of  an  equally  high  standard),  who  may 
be  admitted  up  to  the  completion  of  their  nineteenth  year.  No  mini- 
mum age  of  admission  is  prescribed,  but  a  limit  is  practically  fixed  by 
the  regulation  which  requires  candidates  to  present  a  certificate  from  a 
gymnasium  of  fitness  for  the  upper  second  class,  or  to  show  in  the  ex- 
amination their  qualification  for  it.  To  do  this,  the  candidate  must  have 
passed  through  the  lower  classes  of  the  schools,  which  he  could  hardly 
accomplish  before  his  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  year. 

The  examination  for  admission,  like  the  later  examinations  to  which 
officers  are  subjected,  is  conducted  by  a  special  board  of  examiners  (See- 
Offizler  und  Cadetten  Priifungs- Commission).  The  board  is  appointed  by 
the  Minister  of  Marine  (Chef  der  Admiralitat),  and  its  proceedings  are 
governed  by  minute  regulations.  Besides  the  entrance  examination,  it 
has  charge  of  the  midshipmen's  examination,  and  the  first  and  the  final 
examination  for  officers.  It  has  no  duties  of  instruction.  The  latter  are 
S.  Ex.  51 11 


162  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

performed  entirely  by  the  regular  officers  and  professors  of  the  schools, 
and  it  is  the  object  of  the  system  to  make  the  examiners  a  distinct  body. 
The  board  of  examiners  holds  therefore  a  very  important  place  in  the 
German  system  of  naval  education.  As  it  is  governed  by  similar  regula- 
tions in  the  conduct  of  all  the  examinations,  it  may  be  well  to  give  here 
a  general  outline  of  the  system. 

The  board  is  composed  of  a  president,  examiners,  secretaries,  and  of- 
ficers to  do  proctor's  duty  in  written  examinations.  The  president  con- 
ducts the  meetings  of  the  board,  gives  special  directions  in  regard  to 
examinations,  and  is  present  at  the  oral  examinations.  The  examiners 
conduct  the  oral  examinations,  and  set  the  written  papers.  Three  times 
the  number  of  papers  required  are  made  out  in  each  subject  by  the 
examiners,  from  which  the  president  of  the  board  chooses  the  allotted 
number.  The  examiners  mark  the  work-papers.  Candidates  obtain- 
ing, or  seeking  to  obtain,  improper  assistance,  are  rejected  without  fur- 
ther formality. 

In  addition  to  the  prescribed  subjects,  candidates,  at  all  the  examin- 
ations, are  allowed  to  offer  one  modern  language,  as  an  extra  subject.  In 
this  case  they  receive  an  examination  in  the  language.  If  they  receive 
a  mark  of  above  55  per  cent,  in  the  extra,  it  goes  to  increase  their  final 
mark,  unless  this  final  mark  is  below  the  passing  standard ;  in  which  case 
the  extra  does  not  count  at  all.  In  no  case  does  it  count  so  as  to  diminish 
a  final  mark. 

The  oral  examination  is  intended  to  complete  and  supplement  the  writ- 
ten, in  order  that  the  examiners  may  determine,  with  greater  accuracy, 
the  merits  of  a  candidate.  At  least  ten  minutes  must  be  allowed  to  each 
candidate. 

The  system  of  marking  at  the  examinations  is  that  employed  in  all  the 
educational  establishments  of  the  Navy,  and  has  some  peculiarities  that 
are  worthy  of  notice.  The  scale  of  marks  ranges  from  1  to  9,  and  a  gen- 
eral average  of  5  is  required  in  order  to  pass.  A  mark  of  5  is  also  re- 
quired in  certain  designated  subjects.  The  time  occupied  in  writing  a 
paper  is  considered  in  marking.  The  marks  for  the  oral  and  written 
examinations  are  combined  with  equal  weight.  To  fix  the  relative  weight 
of  subjects  in  the  final  calculation,  they  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
according  to  their  importance.  Each  class  has  its  coefficient ;  that  of 
subjects  of  the  first  class  being  always  3,  of  the  second  2,  and  of  the 
third  1. 

In  computing  the  final  mark  of  a  candidate,  the  marks  for  separ- 
ate subjects  are  not  taken  directly  as  the  basis  of  the  computation,  but 
the  difference  by  which  each  mark  exceeds  or  is  less  than  5,  the  passing 
mark.  All  marks  greater  than  5  give  plus  quantities,  and  all  marks  less 
than  5  give  minus  quantities.  These  differences,  plus  or  minus  as  the 
case  maybe,  are  then  multiplied  by  their  respective  coefficients,  and  the 
algebraic  sum  of  the  plus  and  minus  products  constitutes  the  final  mark. 
The  result  may  be  a  plus  quantity,  a  minus  quantity,  or  zero. 


ADMISSION.  163 

Candidates  are  grouped  together,  according  to  the  result,  in  five  classes. 
Those  whose  final  mark  is  a  minus  quantity  are  designated  as  not  passed. 
Those  whose  mark  is  zero,  and  who  have  obtained  the  required  mark  in 
the  separate  subjects  in  which  a  standard  is  exacted,  are  satisfactory. 
Above  this  limit  candidates  are  classed  as  good,  or  very  good,  accor- 
ding to  the  degree  of  excellence.  Candidates  whose  final  mark  is  zero 
or  above,  but  who  have  failed  in  one  or  more  of  the  separate  subjects  in 
which  there  is  a  passing  standard,  are  classed  as  having  passed  with  con- 
ditions (bedingt  bestanden).  The  last  may  be  recommended  for  re-exami- 
nation. 

At  the  conclusion  of  each  examination,  the  board  makes  up  its  report 
with  a  general  merit-roll  and  recommendations  in  the  cases  of  candidates 
who  have  failed.  It  also  issues  certificates  to  those  who  pass.  The 
recommendations  of  the  board  decide,  finally,  the  disposal  of  all  doubt- 
ful cases. 

The  examination  for  admission  is  held  annually  at  Kiel,  in  the  month 
of  April.  Four  weeks  before  the  date  fixed  for  the  entrance  examina- 
tion, the  papers  sent  in  by  applicants  for  admission  are  sent  to  the  pres- 
ident of  the  examining  board.  Candidates  are  first  subjected  to  a  med- 
ical examination  by  a  naval  surgeon,  in  presence  of  the  president  and 
recorder  of  the  board.  The  results  of  this  examination  are  forwarded 
to  th.e  Admiralty,  but  they  have  no  bearing  upon  the  mental  examination. 

The  requirements  for  admission  in  the  mental  examination  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

A.  FIRST  CiASS :  COEFFICIENT,  3. 

i. — LATIN. 

The  examination  is  based  on  the  course  of  study  in  the  lower  second  class  of  a  Gym- 
nasium or  Realschule  of  the  first  class,  and  includes  the  authors  usually  read  at  schools 
in  this  and  the  preceding  classes,  together  with  written  translation  from  Latin  into 
German  and  the  grammatical  analysis  of  passages. 

II. — GERMAN*    (labours). 

Preparation  of  an  essay  on  a  simple  subject,  without  errors  in  spelling  or  gram- 
mar, and  showing  a  certain  facility  in  expression. 

III. — MATHEMATICS  *    (2i  hours). 

1.  The  whole  of  arithmetic,  and  algebra  through  logarithms  and  exponential  equa- 
tions. 

2.  Elementary  plane  geometry. 

3.  Trigonometry,  plane  and  spherical,  including  the  discussion  of  trigonometrical 
functions,  the  deduction  and  application  of  formulas,  and  the  determination  of  the 
areas  of  right-line  figures  and  segments  of  circles. 

4.  Elements  of  stereometry. 

B. — SECOND  CLASS  :  COEFFICIENT,  2. 

IV.— PHYSICS. 
Elements  of  physics  and  mechanics. 


*In  all  the  programmes  of  examination,  given  under  the  head  of  German  schools, 
starred  subjects  are  those  in  which  a  mark  of  5  is  required  in  order  to  pass. 


164  NAVAL    EDUCATION GERMANY. 

V. — GEOGRAPHY,  PHYSICAL'AND  POLITICAL. 
VI. — HISTORY. 

History  in  general,  and  the  history  of  Germany  in  particular,  with  special  reference 
to  the  growth  of  its  territory  and  the  development  of  its  constitution,  and  to  the  prin- 
cipal events  of  the  most  important  wars  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 

C. — THIRD  CLASS:  COEFFICIENT,  1. 

VII. — FRENCH   AND   ENGLISH. 

Tolerable  fluency  is  required  in  reading  and  translating  easy  passages  into  German, 
and  vice  versa,  with  some  readiness  in  grammatical  analysis. 

viii. — DRAWING. 

The  candidate  must  produce  a  freehand  drawing  of  his  own,  duly  attested,  or  in  de- 
fault of  this,  is  required  to  draw  from  models  or  objects  set  by  the  examiner. 

If  the  candidate  has  the  certificate  of  fitness  for  the  upper  second 
class  of  a  gymnasium,  or  realschule  of  the  first  class,  or  if  he  has  passed 
satisfactorily  the  first-class  course  in  the  Cadetten-Haus  at  Berlin,  he  is 
exempt  from  the  examinations  in  Latin,  German,  and  history.  In  ob- 
taining the  final  mark  in  such  cases,  the  subjects  in  which  examination 
is  waived  receive  a  mark  of  5,  satisfactory  5  but  candidates  are  always 
at  liberty  to  obtain  a  higher  mark  by  passing  the  examinations,  if  they 
desire. 

If  the  candidate  has  been  graduated  with  a  diploma  (Abiturienten- 
Zeugniss)  from  a  gymnasium,  a  realschule,  or  other  similar  institution  of 
learning,  he  is  entirely  exempt  from  the  entrance  examination,  provided 
the  diploma  classes  him  as  good  *  in  mathematics.  In  the  absence  of  this 
qualification  he  must  pass  an  examination  in  mathematics  before  the 
board.  The  board  decides  according  to  the  result  of  the  examination, 
and  sends  to  the  Admiralty  an  abstract  of  the  proceedings  in  relation 
thereto,  in  which  it  is  stated  finally  whether  a  re-examination  may  be 
granted.  The  Minister  makes  his  decision  in  regard  to  the  appointments 
on  the  basis  of  this  report. 

*  This  term  has  a  definite  official  significance  in  the  German  school  system. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

CADETS'  PRACTICE-CRUISE. 

Cadets  who  have  received  appointments  are  arranged  provisionally 
according  to  the  result  of  the  examination,  those  who  come  in  with 
graduates'  diplomas  being  ranked  first  according  to  age.  All  the  cadets 
are  embarked  in  April,  on  board  the  cadets'  training-ship,  and  receive 
there  their  first  training  as  seamen  and  officers.  The  training-ship  makes 
a  cruise  during  the  summer,  and  returns  to  port  about  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember. Those  cadets  who,  during  the  cruise,  appear  unfit  for  the  naval 
service,  from  want  of  capacity  or  otherwise,  are  to  be  reported  as  soon 
as  possible  to  the  Admiralty  by  the  commanding  officer,  after  consulta- 
tion with  the  other  officers.  On  the  basis  of  this  report,  the  minister 
finally  orders  their  discharge  from  the  service.  The  time  passed  on 
board  the  training-ship,  however,  does  not  in  these  cases  count  as  serv- 
ice-time towards  the  performance  of  obligatory  military  service,  required 
by  the  German  laws  of  all  citizens. 

The  object  of  the  six  months'  practice- cruise,  with  which  the  German 
cadets  begin  their  professional  education,  is  to-  discover  their  physical 
aptitude  for  the  service,  and  to  give  them  the  needful  elementary  train- 
ing in  the  practical  duties  of  their  profession.  Hence  there  is  no  theo- 
retical instruction,  as  such,  on  board  the  school-ship. 

The  course  may  be  divided  into  five  branches,  which  are  pursued  as 
follows : 

1.  Seamanship. — This  includes  the  first  instruction  in  the  standing  and 
running  rigging  and  sails,  and  practice  in  setting  up  and  taking  down 
rigging,  sending  up  and  down  upper  masts  and  yards,  setting,  reefing, 
furling,  and  taking  in  sail,  and  working  ship  under  sail. 

2.  Gunnery,  including  the  guns  and  carriages  on  board  the  ship,  their 
equipments,  and  ammunition.    In  exercises,  the  eadets  are  shifted  to 
different  guns,  and  to  different  numbers,  so  as  to  give  every  variety  of 
practice.    At  quarters  they  have  their  regular  stations.    Firing-prac- 
tice is  so  arranged  that  each  cadet  has  two  firings  with  the  8-c.  in.  gun, 
and  two  with  the  12-c.  m.  or  15-c.  m. ;  one  of  which  is  with  the  fixed 
target,  and  the  other  with  the  floating  target  at  sea. 

3.  Navigation. — The  cadets  have  some  instruction  of  a  practical  and 
elementary  character  in  the  use  of  reflecting  instruments  and  charts, 
and  they  are  taught  the  use  of  the  compass,  log,  and  lead. 

4.  Official  duties  (Dienst-Kenntniss). — Manual  and  use  of  small-arms; 
landing  parties ;  infantry  drill  on  shore. 

5.  Rigging,  steering,  and  sailing  boats.. 

In  addition  to  this  programme,  the  cadets,  when  opportunty  offers,  in 


166  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

going  into  or  out  of  harbors,  or  passing  remarkable  objects,  receive  in- 
formal instruction  orally  from  the  officers,  partly  with  the  object  of  train- 
ing their  powers  of  observation.  The  small  number  of  the  cadets, 
generally  not  more  than  40,  makes  it  possible  for  the  officers  of  the  train- 
ing ship  to  give  constant  attention  to  their  wants  and  frequent  personal 
instruction.  One  officer,  called  the  "  cadets'  officer,"  is  specially  de- 
tailed to  superintend  the  military  and  nautical  training  of  the  cadets,  to 
keep  the  liberty-lists  and  punishment-lists,  and  to  examine  the  journals 
kept  by  the  cadets.  The  cadets  are  arranged  in  four  watches.  Each  of 
them  serves  in  turn  as  cadet  of  the  watch,  and  during  his  tour  receives 
instruction  in  the  duties  of  the  position  from  the  officer  of  the  watch. 
The  other  cadets  perform  the  regular  duties  of  seamen  of  the  watch. 
In  exercising  with  sails,  they  perform  duty  aloft,  to  a  moderate  extent 
at  first,  and  with  the  assistance  of  the  petty  officers  and  seamen  of  the 
ship.  The  latter  are  gradually  separated  from  them,  as  they  become 
more  proficient.  At  quarters,  they  are  formed  in  gun's  crews,  as  soon  as 
they  have  learnt  the  drill  sufficiently. 

The  daily  routine  should  be  carefully  examined,  as  it  represents  one 
of  the  most  systematic  and  thoroughly-digested  courses  of  practical  in- 
struction of  its  kind  in  existence,  and  one  thoroughly  adapted  to  the 
age,  training,  and  requirements  of  the  cadets.* 

The  practice-ship  used  for  the  cadets  is  the  Mobe,  a  sailing-frigate. 
She  is  armed  with  14  guns,  4  of  15  c.  m.,  6  of  12  c.  m.,  and  4  of  8  c.  in. 
All  are  Krupp  breech-loading  rifles,  except  two  of  the  last,  which  are 
howitzers.  The  embarkation  on  board  the  school-ship  takes  place  about 
the  middle  of  April.  The  first  four  weeks  are  spent  in  the  harbor  of 
Kiel,  learning  the  elements  of  the  profession,  and  the  routine  of  duty  on 
shipboard.  The  morning  is  generally  occupied  with  infantry  drill  on 
shore,  the  afternoon  with  instruction  upon  the  sails  and  rigging,  with 
boat-sailing,  or  with  target-practice  with  small-arms  on  shore.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  an  examination  is  held  on  board  the  ship  by  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  station  at  Kiel. 

For  the  following  week  the  cadets  have  practice  in  working  the  ship 
in  and  before  the  harbor;  and  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  some 
familiarity  with  this  exercise  the  real  cruise  begins.  This  lasts  till  late 
in  September,  at  which  time  the  training-ship  returns  to  Kiel.  The 
cruise  extends  to  various  points  in  the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea,  including 
perhaps  the  Channel,  where  the  ship  may  put  in  to  the  important  En- 
glish ports,  such  as  Portsmouth  and  Devonport.  In  July,  1878,  the 
Niobe  was  at  Dartmouth  at  the  closing  of  the  semi-annual  session  of  the 
Britannia. 

During  the  cruise  the  routine  at  sea  or  in  port  is  followed,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  former  includes  exercises  with  sails  on  four  mornings  in 
the  week,  daily  instruction  in  seamanship,  navigation,  and  official  duties, 
and  practice  in  reefing,  furling,  loosing  sail,  &c. ;  instruction  three  times 

*  Appendix,  Note  M. 


CADETS'  PRACTICE-CRUISE.  167 

a  week  in  the  use  of  the  lead,  compass,  &c. ;  sailmaking,  knotting,  and 
splicing,  twice  a  week ;  exercise  with  small-arms  and  great  guns.  In 
port,  the  routine  includes  exercises  with  sails  five  days  in  the  week ; 
with  great  guns,  three  days ;  boat  sailing  and  steering  daily,  and  small- 
arms  occasionally. 

The  captain  of  the  training-ship  makes  weekly  reports  to  the  Admiralty 
of  the  progress  and  conduct  of  cadets.  The  usual  punishments  are  rep- 
rimand, extra  watch  duty,  confinement,  and  deprivation  of  leave;  but 
in  cases  of  persistent  misconduct  the  cadet  may  be  removed  immediately 
from  the  service  on  the  application  of  the  captain  and  officers  of  the 
training  ship. 

The  cadets  sleep  in  a  room  built  for  them  on  the  gun-deck.  Here  they 
have  their  lockers,  and  the  room  serves  also  for  study  and  mess  room* 
Seamen  are  detailed  to  act  as  servants,  take  care  of  clothing,  &c.,  the 
allowance  being  one  man  to  four  cadets.  Seamen  are  also  detailed  as 
assistant  stewards  and  waiters.  The  cadets'  mess  is  in  charge  of  the 
cadets'  officer  and  the  paymaster,  who  are  responsible  to  the  captain. 

A  certificate  of  service  from  the  captain  and  officers  of  the  cadets' 
practice-ship  is  given  to  the  cadets  at  the  beginning  of  September.  The 
certificates,  together  with  a  provisional  rank-list  based  on  the  degree  of 
application  shown  by  each  cadet,  are  forwarded  by  September  15  to  the 
Admiralty,  which  thereupon  orders  qualified  cadets  to  attend  the  cadets' 
course  of  the  Naval  School  at  the  beginning  of  October.  Before  this 
assignment,  the  captain  of  the  training-ship  requires  them  to  take  the 
oath  of  service. 


CHAPTEE    XXIII. 
THE    NAVAL    ACADEMY    AND   SCHOOL:    GENERAL    ORGANIZATION. 

The  Naval  Academy  and  Naval  School  (Marine  Akademie  und  Sclmle) 
form  really  two  establishments  united  under  one  government.  The 
Academy  is  devoted  to  the  higher  education  of  officers  who  have  shown 
marked  ability,  and  who  come  as  voluntary  students  for  three  years. 
The  studies  and  special  regulations  of  the  Academy  will  be  taken  up 
later.  The  School,  on  the  other  hand,  is  attended  by  midshipmen  or 
acting  sub-lieutenants,  and  by  cadets,  and  its  courses  are  compulsory 
for  all  officers.  The  School  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  officers'  divis- 
ion (Offizier-Ccctus),  and  the  cadet's  division  (Cadetten-Ccetus).  To  the 
officers'  division  belong  acting  sub-lieutenants  ( Unter-IAeutenants-zur-See 
ohne  Patent]  and  midshipmen,  who  have  finished  their  second  practice- 
cruise,  and  have  passed  the  first  naval  officers'  examination,  and  who 
are  preparing  for  the  officers'  professional  examination.  This  course 
lasts  eleven  months.  The  cadets'  division  contains  cadets  who  have 
finished  their  first  cruise  in  the  cadets'  practice-ship,  and  who  are  pre- 
paring for  the  midshipmen's  examination.  The  course  extends  over  the 
six  winter  months. 

The  institution  comprising  the  Academy  and  School  is  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  commander-in-chief  at  Kiel,  in  matters  of  command  and 
discipline ;  but  in  all  that  pertains  to  instruction  and  maintenance,  it  is 
directly  under  the  Admiralty.  The  government  of . the  institution  stands 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  commander-in-chief  as  that  of  a  naval  garri- 
son. The  military  head  of  the  establishment  is  a  naval  officer  of  high 
rank,  known  as  the  director  of  the  Naval  Academy  and  School. 

The  direction  of  all  matters  relating  to  instruction  rests  with  the  com- 
mittee on  studies  (Studien- Commission).  This  committee  is  composed  of 
five  members,  appointed  by  the  emperor.  It  consists  of  a  rear-admiral 
as  president,  three  staff  officers  of  high  rank,  one  of  them  the  director 
of  the  Academy  and  School,  and  one  professor  in  the  University  of 
Kiel.  The  duties  of  the  committee  are  not  merely  advisory.  On  the 
contrary,  it  has  actual  charge  and  direction  of  the  whole  course  of  in- 
struction given  at  the  institution ;  and  in  matters  which  fall  within  its 
province,  the  director  is  required  to  carry  out  its  decisions.  It  arranges 
the  programme  of  studies,  and  takes  cognizance  of  the  work  performed 
by  instructors  and  students,  being  directed  to  keep  in  view  the  dili- 
gence of  the  former,  as  well  as  the  progress  of  the  latter.  It  nominates 
the  candidates  for  appointment  as  instructors.  Its  members  frequently 
attend  the  lectures  and  recitations,  and  the  results  of  their  observa- 


THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY  AND  SCHOOL.  169 

tioiis  are  considered  in  meetings  of  the  committee.  Where  reform  is 
•called  for,  changes  in  fundamental  regulations  are  proposed  to  the  Ad- 
miralty. The  instructors  have,  however,  the  right  to  propose  changes 
in  the  course,  which  are  then  considered  by  the  committee ;  and  in  draw- 
ing up  the  course,  and  arranging  the  distribution  of  time,  the  commit- 
tee acts  upon  a  very  rough  scheme  of  instruction  proposed  by  the  in- 
structors through  the  director.  This  may  be  modified  if  the  committee 
sees  fit. 

The  committee  has  extraordinary  powers  in  regard  to  examinations , 
acting  largely  as  a  check  upon  the  board  of  examiners.  The  papers  set 
at  the  examinations  of  cadets  and  officers  are  submitted  to  its  inspec- 
tion, and  may  be  altered  or  replaced  according  to  its  discretion.  It 
delegates  members  to  attend  all  oral  examinations,  including  the  quar- 
terly examinations  in  the  Academy  and  School.  It  examines  all  the 
marks  given  at  examinations,  and  transmits  the  result  of  its  inspection 
to  the  president  of  the  examining  board.  It  sets  the  papers  for  appli- 
cants for  admission  to  the  voluntary  courses  of  the  Naval  Academy,  in- 
spects the  marks  given  by  the  examiners,  and  delivers  an  opinion  there- 
upon to  the  Admiralty,  with  recommendations  as  to  the  application.  It 
decides  at  the  close  of  each  year  what  students  of  the  Academy  shall  be 
allowed  to  continue  their  studies ;  and  sends  full  reports  to  the  Admi- 
ralty of  the  work  done  both  in  the  Academy  and  School,  giving  a  criti- 
cal statement  of  the  progress  and  performance  of  the  students,  and  of 
the  ability  shown  by  the  instructors,  the  methods  of  instruction  pursued, 
and  the  particular  results  attained.  To  these  reports,  the  director  adds 
a  statement  of  the'  progress  of  each  student,  specifying  the  subjects  in 
which  he  has  been  particularly  successful,  and  stating  whether  he  has 
shown  marked  aptitude  for  any  professional  specialty. 

The  committee  has  supervision  of  the  library  and  scientific  collections, 
and  it  directs  the  expenditure  of  appropriations  for  these  purposes,  on 
recommendations  from  the  director  and  the  instructors. 

Either  the  committee  as  a  whole,  or  any  member  of  it,  is  authorized 
to  make  suggestions  or  censures  directly,  either  to  the  students  of  the 
School  and  the  Academy,  or  to  the  instructors.  Decisions  and  recom. 
mendations  regarding  the  direction  are  sent  to  the  Admiralty,  but  those 
concerning  any  part  of  the  personnel  are  made  to  the  director. 

The  director  of  the  Naval  Academy  and  School  is  the  head  of  the 
personnel,  military  and  civil,  of  the  establishment,  and  has  the  powers, 
as  to  discipline,  punishment,  and  granting  leave  of  absence,  of  the 
colonel  of  a  regiment.  He  has  general  guidance  and  supervision  of  the 
instruction,  as  well  as  of  the  interior  service,  and  is  responsible  for  the 
thoroughness  of  the  work  done  by  teachers  and  students.  He  arranges 
the  details  of  the  programme  of  studies,  and  the  regulations  for  instruct- 
ors, in  accordance  with  the  decision  of  the  committee  on  studies.  He 
has  the  power  of  suspending  or  detaching  students  guilty  of  gross 
breach  of  duty ;  and  the  return  of  offenders  depends  on  their  conduct 


170  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

during  the  period  of  suspension.  With  him  is  associated  the  direction 
officer,  who  has  the  disciplinary  powers  of  the  commander  of  a  battal- 
ion, and  upon  whom  devolve  the  supervision  of  the  interior  service, 
and  the  special  charge  of  discipline.  In  deciding  on  military  questions 
and  matters  of  administration,  the  director  acts  through  the  direction 
officer. 

Three  naval  officers  are  attached  to  the  School,  called  inspection  offi- 
cers, to  assist  the  direction  officer  in  the  details  of  executive  duty.  To 
them  is  intrusted  the  direct  supervision  and  inspection  of  the  students 
quartered  in  barracks,  and  the  particular  enforcement  of  regulations. 
The  system  of  discipline  is  vigorous,  but  not  severe.  The  students  are 
treated  like  men  rather  than  boys,  and  are  not  repressed  by  unneces- 
sary restraints.  The  liberal  character  of  the  German  regulations  forms 
a  strong  contrast  to  the  repressive  systems  prevailing  in  France  and 
Italy.  The  inspection  officers  are  enjoined  to  establish  between  them- 
selves and  the  students  the  relation  of  comrades,  without  at  the  same 
time  sacrificing  their  authority  ;  and  they  are  to  study  the  peculiarities 
of  mind  and  character  of  those  in  their  charge.  At  the  close  of  each 
month  a  meeting  of  the  inspection  officers  is  held,  at  which  they  make 
a  formal  statement  of  their  opinion  of  the  character  and  aptitude  of 
each  student. 

Each  inspection  officer  has  assigned  to  his  particular  charge  one  or 
more  of  the  cadets'  quarters,  to  which  he  gives  special  attention.  All 
petitions  from  students  in  his  inspection  go  first  to  him.  He  sees  that 
the  study-hours  are  properly  occupied,  and  makes  frequent  inspections 
to  insure  order  and  cleanliness  in  his  buildings.  He  has  charge,  either 
in  his  own  inspection  or  as  officer  of  the  day,  of  the  under-officers, 
watchmen,  writers,  waiters,  and  house  and  section-room  service.  No 
authority  is  given  him  to  punish  offenders.  A  breach  of  discipline  re- 
quiring punishment  is  reported  to  the  director.  The  inspection  officers 
are  on  duty  by  turns,  for  twenty-four  hours  at  a  time,  as  officer  of  the 
day,  with  the  usual  duties  of  this  position. 

In  addition  to  the  three  inspection  officers,  there  is  a  fourth  officer, 
who  is  detailed  as  a  sort  of  adjutant  or  military  secretary  (Bureauchef), 
and  who  has  charge  of  the  office  duties  and  the  care  of  the  library  and 
scientific  collections.  The  pecuniary  administration  is  in  charge  of  a 
committee  (Kassen- Commission)  consisting  of  the  direction  officer,  the 
Bureauclief,  and  the  paymaster. 

Instructors  are  of  three  classes,  as  follows  : 

(1)  Civil  instructors,  who  are  imperial  officials,  detailed  for  duty  at 
the  School  or  Academy. 

(2)  Officers  of  the  military  or  civil  branches  of  the  Navy,  ordered 
exclusively  for  instruction. 

(3)  Other  officers,  civil  functionaries,  and  professional  men  of  distin- 
guished attainments,  who  are  employed  to  give  instruction  in  addition 
to  such  other  occupations  as  they  may  already  have.    Instructors  of  the 


THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY  AND  SCHOOL.  171 

first  two  classes  have  a  fixed  number  of  lectures  to  give,  and  hours  of 
instruction  to  fill,  and  for  extra  work  they  receive  extra  pay.  Instruct- 
ors of  the  third-class  (Honorar-Lehrer)  receive  special  fees,  according  to 
the  character  and  amount  of  the  instruction  they  give. 

In  the  courses  at  the  Naval  School,  learning  by  rote  and  mechanical 
methods  of  teaching  are  rigorously  excluded,  and  the  practical  wants 
and  necessities  of  the  profession  are  kept  constantly  in  view.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  instructors  is  always  to  give  students  the  most  thorough  un- 
derstanding of  principles,  and  this  end  is  accomplished  by  frequent 
reviews  and  recitations,  setting  special  problems,  and  close  criticism  of 
students'  work.  A  lesson  lasts  one  hour  and  a  half,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  in  a  section  is  limited  to  25. 

Practical  instruction  is  given  in  visits  of  inspection  on  shipboard,  and 
in  the  dockyards.  There  is  also  a  course  in  practical  surveying,  near 
the  close  of  the  session,  for  those  students  who  received  no  instruction 
in  this  branch  while  on  the  midshipmen's  practice-cruise.  The  students 
of  both  courses  have  instruction  in  fencing  and  gymnastics,  and  the 
cadets  have  also  lessons  in  dancing. 

Quarterly  examinations,  both  written  and  oral,  are  held,  and  marks 
given  at  these  examinations  are  entered  in  merit  rolls.  The  marks  for 
the  four  examinations  are  combined  at  the  end  of  the  course,  and  give 
the  standing  of  the  student.  The  merit  rolls  together  with  the  three 
best  and  three  worst  exercises  in  each  subject  are  sent  to  the  committee 
on  studies. 

The  discipline  of  the  School,  under  the  inspection  officers,  is  carried 
out  by  students,  selected  for  special  duties  and  responsibilities.  These 
are  (1)  the  superintendent  of  service,  for  the  whole  body  of  students, 
(2)  the  class-superintendent,  and  (3)  the  superintendents  of  quarters. 
All  of  them  are  named  by  the  director  of  the  school,  usually  according 
to  seniority.  The  duty  of  these  "  cadet  officers,"  as  they  may  be  called, 
is  to  enforce  regulations,  order,  and  discipline  among  the  students  un- 
der their  charge.  To  this  end,  they  are  given  adequate  authority,  and 
they  are  responsible  for  irregularities  that  they  fail  to  report.  Each  of 
the  students'  quarters  contains  a  study  or  living-room  and  two  dormi- 
tories. In  the  former  the  students  are  occupied  during  the  study  hours, 
and  discipline  similar  to  that  of  a  class-room  is  preserved  by  the  super- 
intendent of  quarters. 

The  mess  apartments  are  divided  into  three  parts,  devoted  respect- 
ively to  meals,  to  amusement,  and  to  smoking.  One  of  the  inspection 
officers  has  charge  of  the  mess  in  conjunction  with  a  caterer  chosen  by 
the  students.  This  officer  has  general  supervision  of  accounts  and  ex- 
penditures, and  receives  all  complaints  and  requests.  He  examines  the 
students'  wine  account,  and  their  accounts  for  extras  with  the  steward, 
which  are  settled  every  month  ;  and  the  steward  is  forbidden  to  open 
any  credit  beyond  this.  The  officer  of  the  day  has  oversight  of  the 
quantity  of  wine  drunk  at  the  table,  and  keeps  it  within  proper  limits. 


172  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

Beer  only  is  allowed  at  breakfast,  wine  and  beer  at  dinner.  The  use  of 
spirits  is  forbidden. 

The  mess  hall  and  the  other  rooms  connected  with  it  may  be  used  for 
music  or  games  during  the  hours  of  recreation ;  but  no  games  of  chance 
are  allowed. 

All  the  cadets  in  attendance  at  the  School  are  quartered  in  the  school- 
buildings,  and  as  many  midshipmen  as  the  space  allows.  The  rest  of 
the  midshipmen  and  the  officers  provide  their  own  quarters,  but  they 
must  dine  at  the  officers'  mess.  Those  quartered  in  the  buildings  have 
all  their  meals  at  their  own  mess. 

The  library  and  reading-room  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  students. 
They  are  required  to  attend  divine  service  on  Sundays  and  high  church- 
festivals,  the  Protestants  in  the  garrison  church  and  the  Catholics  in 
their  own  church.  They  are  marched  to  and  from  church  in  charge  of 
an  inspection  officer. 

Liberty  to  go  outside  the  school  limits  is  given  during  afternoon  rec- 
reation on  working  days;  and  on  holidays  after  service  or  inspec- 
tion till  10  p.  m.  Permission  at  other  times  and  for  longer  periods  is 
given  only  to  students  whose  conduct  and  diligence  warrant  it.  Ke- 
quests  are  forwarded  at  muster  through  the  inspection  officer  to  the 
director,  and  the  liberty  may  extend  to  permission  to  attend  the  theater 
till  11  p.  in.,  and-  social  entertainments,  where  an  invitation  has  been  re- 
ceived, to  a  later  hour.  In  all  such  cases  the  janitor  notes  and  reports 
the  hour  of  return. 

The  care  of  the  students'  clothing  and  quarters  is  in  charge  of  the 
servants,  who  are  enlisted  men  detailed  for  this  duty. 

For  cadets  the  light  punishments  consist  of  extra  drills,  special  dress 
for  muster,  suspension  from  duty,  and  the  requirement  of  being  in  their 
rooms  at  a  certain  hour.  The  heavy  punishments  are  confinement  to 
the  buildings,  with  required  attendance  at  lectures,  and  performance  of 
regular  duties;  confinement  in  quarters,  during  which  the  student  is  not 
allowed  to  leave  his  building,  except  for  meals,  musters,  lectures,  &c. ;  and 
confinement  in  garrison,  during  which  the  student  loses,  for  the  time, 
his  part  in  the  instruction.  The  punishments  for  midshipmen  consist 
of  formal  censure  and  confinement  of  the  three  classes  mentioned  for 
four  weeks.  For  officers  the  only  punishments  are  censures,  and  con- 
finement to  the  oifender's  apartment  for  two  weeks. 

ROUTINE. 

6  a.  m. — Reveille. 

6.30  a.  m.— Study. 

7.35  a.  m.— Breakfast. 

8  a.  m.  to  12.30  p.  m. — Three  foreuoou  recitations. 

12.45  p.  in. — Muster,  dinner,  and  recreation. 

2.30  to  4  p.  m. — Afternoon  recitation. 

4  p.  m. — Recreation;  instruction  in  gymnastics  and  dancing. 
6  p.  m. — Study;  voluntary  on  Saturday. 

5  p.  m. — Supper  and  recreation. 
10.10  p.  m. — Lights  out. 


CHAPTER     XXIV. 

NAVAL,  SCHOOL. — CADETS'  DIVISION. 

MIDSHIPMEN'S  EXAMINATION. 

The  direct  object  of  the  course  for  the  cadets'  division  of  the  Naval 
School  is  the  preparation  of  the  cadets  for  the  midshipmen's  examina- 
tion ;  and  it  furnishes  the  first  theoretical  instruction  received  by  junior 
officers.  It  embraces  the  following  subjects : 

I. — NAVIGATION. 

Outlines  of  astronomy;  stars  of  the  first  magnitude  and  their  distances;  ocean  and 
wind  currents;  arrangement  and  use  of  the  log-line  and  glass;  calculation  of  course 
and  distance,  and  all  allowances  to  be  made  for  currents ;  construction  and  use  of 
charts;  ability  to  plot  a  ship's  position  from  course  and  distance,  from  latitude 
and  longitude,  and  from  bearings  and  measurement  of  angles;  conversion  of  time; 
calculation  of  latitude  from  meridian  altitude  of  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  planets ; 
ready  use  of  the  sextant  and  octant,  and  finding  the  index-error  ;  construction  and 
use  of  the  artificial  horizon ;  barometer,  thermometer,  chronometer,  and  the  differ- 
ent compasses ;  correction  of  observed  altitudes  for  semi-diameter,  parallax,  dipr 
and  refraction ;  arrangement  and  use  of  Bremicker's  nautical  almanac  ;  setting  up 
of  the  binnacle  and  azimuth  compasses,  and  obtaining  the  deviation. 

II. — SEAMANSHIP. 

Nomenclature  of  the  various  parts  of  a  ship  not  included  under  ship-building ;  masts 
and  rigging,  their  arrangement,  application,  and  uses ;  loosing  and  furling,  making 
and  taking  in  sail;  action  of  wind  on  sails  and  ship;  action  of  the  rudder;  simple 
inanoeuvers  under  ordinary  circumstances,  with  words  of  command ;  the  national 
flags  of  maritime  States,  the  system  of  signals  in  the  Imperial  Navy,  and  the  Inter- 
national Code,  including  semaphore  signals ;  the  daily  boat-service ;  salutes  and 
words  of  command. 

III. — GUNNERY. 

Classification  and  nomenclature  of  guns  and  small  arms ;  materials  and  principles  of 
construction  of  guns  and  carnages ;  composition  and  elements  of  gunpowder,  and 
general  notice  of  the  manufacture  of  those  kinds  in  use  in  the  German  Navy  ;  igni- 
tion, inflammation,  and  combustion ;  examination  and  testing  of  powder ;  indica- 
tions and  treatment  of  spoilt  or  damaged  powder;  preservation  of  powder  and 
ammunition  in  magazines,  on  shore  and  on  shipboard ;  classification  and  nomencla- 
ture of  ammunition,  fuses,  and  primers;  elementary  principles  of  firing. 

IV. — LAND   TACTICS. 

Different  kinds  of  troops ;  formations  and  evolutions  of  a  company  of  infantry,  with 
special  reference  to  skirmishing ;  effect  of  the  ground  upon  methods  of  fighting ; 

.  principles  for  the  guidance  of  a  ship's  company  landed  for  fighting  (except  the  use 
of  boat-guns  and  field-pieces). 

V. — MATHEMATICS. 

Thorough  knowledge  of  lower  mathematics,  and  facility  in  calculation,  leaving  out 
the  higher  equations  and  series ;  plane  and  spherical  trigonometry  and  stereometry 


174  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

VI. — NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

Fundamental  principles  of  chemistry,  with  particular  reference  to  the  processes  enter- 
ing into  gunnery  and  nautical  science. 

vn. — OFFICIAL  DUTIES  (Dienat-Eenntniss). 

Preparation  of  official  reports  pertaining  to  midshipmen's  duties  ;  regulations  govern- 
ing the  duties  of  midshipmen  on  shipboard;  naval  discipline  on  shore  and  at  sea; 
organization  of  the  Army  and  Navy. 

VIII. — SURVEYING,    OR  TOPOGRAPHICAL  DRAWING. 
IX. — ENGLISH   AND   FRENCH. 

Fluent  reading  and  tolerably  ready  translation  of  English  and  French  into  German 
and  vice  versa  ;  readiness  in  oral  and  written  expression. 

At  the  close  of  the  course  for  cadets  a  faculty-meeting  of  the  director 
and  instructors  of  the  Naval  School  decides  what  students  ma'y  be  per- 
mitted to  attend  the  midshipmen's  examination.  Their  report,  together 
with  the  director's  report  on  conduct,  is  transmitted  to  the  Admiralty 
for  approval.  Those  cadets  who  receive  permission  from  the  Admiralty 
are  thereupon  examined  for  promotion  to  the  grade  of  midshipman. 

The  midshipmen's  examination  covers  the  whole  course  of  instruction 
pursued  by  the  cadets  and  is  conducted  by  the  permanent  board  of  ex- 
aminers. The  subjects  are  arranged  according  to  the  following  schedule : 

FIRST  CLASS:  COEFFICIENT,  3. 
i. — NAVIGATION  :  *  3  hours. 

Six  papers  or  problems  are  set  in  the  examination,  of  which  two  are  descriptive  and 
four  are  practical  problems. 

n. — SEAMANSHIP  :  *  3  hours. 

Three  papers  are  given  :  one  on  general  knowledge  of  the  ship,  one  on  maneuvers, 
and  the  third  on  service  on  board  ship. 

in. — GUNNERY  :  2£  hours.     ' 

IV. — MATHEMATICS  :   2  hoUTg. 

Three  papers  are  given :  in  algebra,  stereometry,  and  spherical  trigonometry. 
SECOND  CLASS  :  COEFFICIENT,  2. 

V. — LAND  TACTICS. 
Two  papers,  of  half  an  hour  each,  on  infantry  tactics  and  fighting  on  shore. 

VI. — OFFICIAL   DUTIES. 

Three  papers,  of  half  an  hour  each,  on  (1)  naval  and  military  organization,  (2)  gen- 
eral regulations  (including  official  correspondence),  and  (3)  laws  of  discipline. 

THIRD  CLASS  :  COEFFICIENT,  1. 

VII.— NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY   (CHEMISTRY)  :    1  hour. 
VIII. — SURVEYING. 

Drawings  made  by  the  students  during  the  term  are  marked  as  a  part  of  the  examina- 
tion. 

*  Mark  of  5  (55  per  cent.)  required. 


NAVAL    SCHOOL CADETS'    DIVISION.  175 


IX. — ENGLISH   AND   FRENCH. 


The  oral  examination  in  navigation  lays  special  stress  on  the  use  of 
the  sextant,  octant,  charts,  compasses,  nautical  almanac,  &c. ;  in  lan- 
guages it  is  chiefly  devoted  to  reading  aloud  and  conversation.  Cadets 
who  fail  at  the  midshipmen's  examination  may  be  allowed,  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  board,  to  go  over  a  second  time  the  course  for  the  year, 
beginning  with  the  cruise  in  the  practice-ship  and  ending  with  the  course 
at  the  school.  In  order  to  do  this  they  must  join  the  class  of  newly- 
entered  cadets,  and  they  lose  a  year's  seniority.  In  cases  of  idleness, 
want  of  ability,  or  bad  conduct,  the  board  will  not  recommend  the  reten- 
tion of  a  cadet  who  fails,  and  in  the  absence  of  such  a  recommendation 
the  cadet  is  invariably  discharged.  A  third  trial  is  never  granted  by 
the  board,  and  therefore  a  second  failure  causes  immediate  dismissal.  In 
such  a  case  only  the  time  of  service  which  has  elapsed  since  taking  the 
oath  counts  toward  the  performance  of  obligatory  military  service. 

Cadets  who  have  passed  the  midshipmen's  examination  receive  cer- 
tificates of  proficiency  from  the  Naval  School.  Those  who  show  extra- 
ordinary proficiency  are  proposed  for  the  special  approbation  of  the 
Emperor.  At  the  same  time  with  the  proceedings  of  the  board,  a  tabular 
statement  of  the  results  of  the  examination  and  a  list  of  the  cadets 
graded  according  to  conduct  are  sent  to  the  Admiralty.  The  order  of 
standing  as  midshipmen  is  made  out  on  the  basis  of  these  documents, 
combined  with  the  certificates  and  provisional  arrangements  of  the  train- 
ing-ship, and  cadets  can  be  proposed  for  promotion  as  acting  or  super- 
numerary midshipmen  in  the  order  of  their  seniority,  as  fixed  by  this 
process. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

MIDSHIPMEN'S  PRACTICE-CRUISE. 

Cadets  who  have  received  the  certificate  of  proficency  at  the  midship- 
men's examination  are  sent  immediately  to  Wilhelmshafen  for  training 
on  board  the  gunnery  ship.  The  course,  which  is  mainly  practical,  lasts 
one  month.  At  its  close  they  are  ordered  to  the  squadron  of  evolutions,, 
in  the  ships  of  which  they  make  the  summer  cruise.  The  squadron  is 
composed  usually  of  three  or  more  large  iron-dads,  and  cruises  for  sev- 
eral months  in  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea.  Returning  from  this  cruise 
about  September,  the  midshipmen  are  embarked  at  Kiel  in  the  midship- 
men's school-ship  for  a  two  years'  cruise.  Here  they  receive  not  only  a 
thorough  practical  training  for  service  as  sub-lieutenants,  but  also  an 
extended  course  of  theoretical  instruction  to  prepare  them  for  the  first 
officers'  examination  (Erste  See-Offiziers-Priifung). 

As  the  midshipmen's  practice-cruise  lasts  two  years,  and  as  there  is  a 
class  ready  to  go  out  every  year,  two  ships  are  set  apart  specially  for 
this  service.  They  are  screw-steamers  of  modern  type,  fully  rigged,  so* 
that  they  are  available  for  sailing  or  steaming.  They  are  supplied  with 
a  full  battery  of  breech-loading  rifles,  and  with  all  the  appliances  and 
equipments  necessary  for  a  training-ship.  Among  these  is  a  complete 
library  of  professional  works  and  works  of  history,  poetry,  and  fiction 
in  French,  German,  and  English.  The  professional  list  embraces  the 
latest  works  in  all  branches,  including  several  American  books.  There 
is  a  full  supply  of  instruments  connected  with  steam-engineering,  navi- 
gation, hydrography,  and  land  surveying,  for  the  midshipmen  are  landed 
from  time  to  time  for  practice  on  shore.  The  ship  is  also  supplied  with 
a  torpedo  outfit.  The  cruise  generally  extends  to  China.  The  practice- 
ship  for  the  cruise  of  last  year  was  the  Leipzig,  a  screw-corvette  of  12  guns 
and  engines  of  700  horse-power. 

The  routine  of  study  (Stunden-Plan)  is  made  out  by  the  captain  of  the 
school-ship  and  approved  before  the  beginning  of  the  cruise  by  the  Ad- 
miralty. Slight  changes  may  be  made  for  weather  or  other  emergencies, 
but  more  extensive  changes  on  the  cruise  must  be  sanctioned  by  the 
Ministry.  Semi-annual  examinations  are  held  on  the  work  of  each  se- 
mester, and  annual  'examinations  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  captain  is 
present  at  oral  examinations.  The  same  marking  system  prevails  as  at 
the  Naval  School.  The  captain  transmits  marks  and  reports  to  the 
Admiralty,  and  gives  the  necessary  warnings  to  cadets  who  fail  to  reach 
the  standard.  The  captain  attends  the  class  instruction  from  time  to 
time,  and  forms  an  opinion  of  the  value  of  the  instruction  given.  He 
appoints  the  cadets''  officer,  who  has  charge  of  the  mess  funds,  clothing 
and  outfit,  and  allowances,  and  of  all  private  interests  of  the  midshipmen. 
In  foreign  ports  midshipmen  are  organized  in  parties  to  visit  places  of  in- 


MIDSHIPMEN'S  PRACTICE-CRUISE.  177 

terest.  They  are  encouraged  to  go  to  balls  and  social  entertainments, 
and  are  given  every  possible  opportunity  of  conversing  in  foreign  lang- 
uages. The  punishments  are  similar  to  those  of  the  cadets. 

For  duty  on  board,  the  midshipmen  are  permanently  divided  in  four 
watches,  under  the  four  division  officers.  These  watches  are  rearranged 
every  quarter.  One  midshipman  acts  as  sergeant  of  the  division,  and 
the  duty  is  taken  in  turn.  Journals  are  kept  by  the  midshipmen,  aad 
inspected  daily  by  the  division  officer.  In  the  journals  they  are  required 
to  make  sketches  of  such  objects  and  places  as  may  be  designated. 

When  the  ship  is  under  steam  the  midshipmen  do  watch  duty  in  turn 
in  the  engine-room,  where  they  receive  instruction  from  the  machinist 
in  charge.  At  the  end  of  this  watch  they  have  to  make  a  report  to  the 
officer  of  the  deck  of  the  number  of  revolutions  made,  the  position  of 
the  manometer  and  vacuum-gauge,  the  quantity  of  coal  consumed,  and 
the  temperature  and  saturation  of  the  boiler. 

When  the  ship  is  under  sail  the  midshipmen  are  stationed  in  turn  as 
midshipmen  of  the  tops.  In  port,  each  acts  in  turn  as  signal  officer. 
They  act  by  turns  as  gun-captains  at  great-gun  exercise,  and  they  are 
sent  in  charge  of  boats. 

According  to  the  daily  routine  midshipmen  turn  out  at  6.30  a.  m. 
From  8  to  9  they  have  instruction,  or  superintend  the  cleaning  of  the 
guns,  after  which  they  have  instruction  and  exercises  till  dinner.  In  the 
afternoon,  from  2  to  4,  they  again  have  instruction,  and  after  the  even- 
ing muster,  at  4.30,  they  take  part  in  the  general  exercises,  either  as  top- 
men  or  at  their  regular  stations.  The  evening  is  generally  devoted  to 
study,  but  on  two  evenings  in  the  week  they  have  fencing  and  gymnas- 
tic instruction. 

The  arrangements  for  living,  mess,  &c.,  are  similar  to  those  in  the  ca- 
dets' school-ship.  A  room  is  assigned  to  the  midshipmen  on  the  gun- 
deck,  in  which  they  eat,  sleep,  and  study.  The  senior  cadet  in  each  di- 
vision performs  in  turn,  for  a  week  at  a  time,  the  duties  of  officer  of  the 
day  ((lu-jour-Dienxt),  as  far  as  the  mess  and  study  periods  are  concerned, 
and  is  responsible  for  quiet  and  order  in  the  steerage. 

The  mess  is  managed  by  a  board,  composed  of  the  cadets'  officer,  pay- 
master, and  two  midshipmen,  elected  by  their  companions  for  a  term  of 
three  months.  The  steward  is  engaged  by  contract  at  the  beginning  of 
the  cruise,  and  two  seamen  are  detailed  as  waiters. 

Midshipmen  sleep  in  hammocks.  The  personal  service  of  the  mid- 
shipmen is  performed  by  seamen  who  volunteer  for  the  duty,  and  who 
receive  special  compensation  and  exemption  from  all  ship's  duty  for  cer- 
tain hours  in  the  morning.  One  servant  is  allowed  to  two  midshipmen. 

Midshipmen  are  forbidden  to  contract  debts ;  and  if  a  midshipman  is 
negligent  and  thriftless  in  pecuniary  matters,  the  captain,  as  an  extreme 
measure,  may  turn  over  his  pay  and  his  private  allowance  (Zulage)  to 
the  officer  of  his  division,  as  a  trust,  to  be  administered  according  to  the 
officer's  discretion. 

An  amusement  fund  is  formed  by  the  paymaster  out  of  sums  reserved 
S.  Ex.  51 12 


NAVAL    EDUCATION — GERMANY. 


from  the  private  allowance,  and  from  other  sources,  which  is  expended 
in  excursions  made  from  time  to  time  by  parties  of  midshipmen. 

The  theoretical  course  of  instruction  includes  navigation,  steam-en- 
gineering, seamanship  and  naval  tactics,  gunnery  *and  torpedoes,  official 
duties  and  organization,  ship-building,  English  and  French.  Naviga- 
tion, gunnery,  and  engineering  are  taught  by  the  navigating  and  gun- 
nery officers,  and  by  the  engineer,  respectively.  Instruction  in  the  di- 
rection and  care  of  the  ship's  stores  is  given  by  the  paymaster,  and  the 
other  subjects  are  assigned  to  the  various  officers  of  the  ship  according 
to  their  qualifications.  No  officer  is  given  more  than  two  subjects  of  in- 
struction. In  order  to  give  to  instructing  officers  the  needful  time  to 
prepare  their  instruction,  they  may  be  relieved  of  the  deck,  weather  per- 
mitting, by  the  sub-lieutenant  of  the  watch,  from  8  a.  m.  to  12,  and  from 
12  to  4  p.  m. 

Extra  pay  is  given  to  officers  engaged  in  duties  of  instruction  on 
board  the  school-ship,  at  the  rate  of  2, 2.50,  or  3  marks  (mark  =  25  cents) 
a  day,  according  to  the  subject  taught.  The  aggregate  of  these  "  sup- 
plements "  is  limited  to  $618  per  annum,  representing  912  hours  of  in- 
struction, of  which  96  hours  are  given  to  fencing.  This  leaves  816 
hoursj  which  may  be  taken  as  the  total  time  devoted  annually  to  theo- 
retical instruction  on  board  the  practice- ship,  an  average  of  nearly  fif- 
teen hours  a  week  through  the  whole  year. 

The  hours  of  instruction  are  as  follows : 


FIRST  SEMESTER. 

Hours  a  •week. 

Navigation 4 

Steam  engineering 3 

Gunnery 2 

Ship-building 1 

Seamanship  2 

Official  duties 2 

English 1 

French 1 

Total..                                          .  16 


SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Navigation 3 

Engineering 3 

Gunnery  1 

Torpedoes 1 

Ship-building 1 

Electives 1 

Seamanship 2 

Official  duties 2 

English 1 

French 1 

Total  .  .16 


THIRD  SEMESTER. 

Hours  a  week. 

Navigation 3 

Engineering 3 

Gunnery 1 

Torpedoes 1 

Ship-building: 1 

Electives : 1 

Seamanship 2 

Official  duties 1 

English 1 

French 2 

Total 16 

FOURTH   SEMESTER. 

Navigation 3 

Engineering 3 

Gunnery ] 

Torpedoes 1 

Ship-building 1 

Electives 1 

Naval  tactics 1 

Organization 2 

English 1 

French , 1 

Total..                                          .  15 


MIDSHIPMEN'S  PRACTICE-CRUISE.  179 

At  the  close  of  the  second  and  fourth  semesters  annual  examinations 
are  held  in  navigation,  engineering,  and  gunnery;  at  the  close  of  the 
third  semester  are  the  final  examinations  in  seamanship  and  official  du- 
ties ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  fourth,  the  final  examinations  in  torpedoes, 
ship-building,  naval  tactics,  and  naval  administration. 

The  programme  of  studies  is  arranged  with  reference  to  the  regular 
ship  duties  of  instructing  officers,  so  as  to  work  as  little  inconvenience 
as  possible.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  always  kept  in  view  that  the  ship  is 
a  school-ship,  and  that  the  first  object  of  the  cruise  is  to  give  regular 
and  thorough  instruction,  practical  and  theoretical,  to  the  midshipmen. 
The  system  is  therefore  free  from  the  objections  to  instruction  on  ship- 
board in  the  English  service,  where  the  attempt  is  made  to  have  a  school 
on  board  the  cruising  ships  of  the  fleet,  and  where,  of  course,  instruction 
must  become  a  secondary  consideration,  beside  the  all-important  de- 
mands of  actual  service ;  where,  moreover,  midshipmen  are  considered 
not  only  as  students,  but  as  officers  having  regular  duties  to  perform. 

The  arrangement  of  studies  is  such  as  to  give  three  hours  of  theoreti- 
cal instruction  a  day,  one  in  the  morning  and  two  in  the  afternoon.  The 
details  of  the  theoretical  course  are  as  follows : 

NAVIGATION. 

FIRST  SEMESTER  :  4  hours  a  week. 

The  course  begins  with  a  short  review  of  plane  navigation,  including  compasses,  de- 
viation, log  and  lead,  and  charts.  The  subjects  taken  up  in  the  course  are  nauti- 
cal surveying,  with  the  instruments  on  board  the  ship ;  preparation  of  charts ;  calcu- 
lation of  position,  construction  of  nautical  instruments,  chronometer,  sextant,  cir- 
cles, compasses,  &c. ;  setting  up  of  the  binnacle  and  azimuth  compasses,  and  deter- 
mination of  deviation ;  practice  in  observing  with  the  sextant  and  with  Pistor's 
circle;  arrangement  of  the  nautical  almanac;  correction  of  harbor  surveys;  and  cor- 
rection of  the  chronometer  error  by  hour  angles  of  the  sun. 

SECOND  SEMESTER  :  3  hours. 

Astronomical  navigation  ;  review  of  the  relations  of  hour  angles  and  time ;  calculation 
of  the  meridian  passage  and  altitudes  of  the  fixed  stars  ;  of  the  hour  angle  and  chro- 
nometer rate,  from  observations  by  the  midshipmen  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and 
fixed  stars. 

THIRD  SEMESTER  :   3  hours. 

Determination  of  chronometer  error  by  equal  altitudes  of  sun  ;  preparation  and  use  of 
chronometer  tables ;  latitude  and  longitude  by  Simmer's  method ;  calculation  of  lat- 
itude by  altitude  of  pole  star,  by  ex-meridian  altitude,  by  double  altitudes ;  rising 
and  setting  of  constellations ;  calculation  of  variation  by  sun's  amplitude  or  azimuth. 

FOURTH  SEMESTER  :   3  hours. 

Calculation  of  time  of  high  and  low  water;  meteorology  and  geography  of  the  sea  ; 
winds  and  currents ;  laws  of  rotary  storms ;  general  review. 

SEAMANSHIP  AND  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

FIRST  SEMESTER:  2  hours. 

Putting  in  and  taking  out  masts  and  bowsprit ;  rigging  shears ;  getting  up  and  taking 
down  tops,  caps,  topmasts,  yards,  and  spars ;  setting  up  standing  rigging ;  reeving 
off  running  rigging ;  bending  sails ;  arrangement  and  use  of  the  anchor  and  cables  ; 
securing  the  anchor,  gearing  used  for  this  purpose ;  shipping  stores ;  getting  ready 
lor  sea. 


NAVAL    EDUCATION — GERMANY. 

SECOND   SEMESTER  :   2  hours. 

Boats  and  their  management ;  striking  topmasts  and  lower  yards ;  shipping  guns  and 
other  heavyweights;  effect  of  wind  on  the  sails ;  maneuvering  under  various  cir- 
cumstances of  wind  and  weather ;  getting  under  way,  anchoring,  tacking,  wearing, 
heaving  to,  bracing  back,  and  scudding ;  furling  and  reefing  sails  in  a  stiff  breeze  ; 
anchoring  on  a  lee  shore  in  a  gale ;  hoisting  and  lowering  the  screw. 

THIRD  SEMESTER:  2  hours. 

Clearing  ship  for  action;  getting  a  ship  off  when  aground;  setting  up  jury -rigging ; 
repairs  of  masts  and  yards;  docking  ship  ;  shipping  and  unshipping  rudder;  jury- 
rudder  ;  rules  of  the  road ;  exact  knowledge  of  German  signals,  of  the  international 
code,  and  of  the  semaphore  signals ;  review. 

FOURTH  SEMESTER:  1  hour. 

Naval  tactics,  including  fundamental  knowledge  of  evolutions,  the  relative  fighting 
qualities  of  ships  in  an  engagement,  the  attack  of  fortified  and  unfortified  places 
and  coasts,  and  the  protection  of  harbors  and  mouths  of  rivers. 

GUNNERY. 
FIRST  SEMESTER:  2  hours. 

Principles  of  construction  and  use  of  guns;  carriages,  equipments,  and  small  arms,  on 
board  the  school-ship ;  inspection  of  ordnance  materials ;  exact  knowledge  of  the 
detail  drill,  with  the  guns  on  board,  of  the  range-tables,  and  of  the  regulations  for 
the  inspection  and  care  of  the  guns,  before,  during,  and  after  use. 

SECOND   SEMESTER  :   1  hour. 

Review  of  the  whole  subject  of  gunpowder,  its  preparation  and  inspection,  ignition, 
combustion,  and  energy  ;  regulations  for  the  transportation,  bringing  on  board,  and 
care  of  powder  and  other  ammunition  ;  preparation  of  fuses ;  filling  cartridges  and 
shells ;  arrangement  of  magazine  and  shell-room ;  use  of  boat  and  field  guns  (taught 
in  connection  with  landing  parties). 

THIRD   SEMESTER  :   1  hour. 

.  Special  exercises,  as  hoisting  in  guns  on  covered  decks,  shifting  guns  to  fire  ahead ; 
.pivot  guns ;  service  of  guns  in  saluting ;  special  regulations  for  naval  guns  not  on 
board  the  school-ship. 

FOURTH   SEMESTER :   1  hour. 

Toreign  guns  and  small  arms,  with  practical  applications  of  instruction  in  visits  to 
foreign  men-of-war ;  general  review. 

TORPEDOES. 
SECOND  SEMESTER:  1  hour. 

Explosives ;  loading,  filling,  and  unloading  torpedoes ;  fuses,  their  preparation  and 
adjustment;  contact-apparatus;  properties  of  dynamite  and  gun-cotton. 

THIRD  SEMESTER:  1  hour. 

Defensive  torpedoes ;  planting  and  taking  up ;  avoidance  of  enemy's  torpedoes ;  con- 
struction and  use  of  offensive  torpedoes. 

FOURTH  SEMESTER:  1  hour. 

Laying  and  inspection  of  electric  torpedoes,  inspection  and  care  of  wires ;  measuring 
instruments;  review. 


MIDSHIPMEN'S  PRACTICE-CRUISE.  181 

STEAM-ENGINEERING. 
FIRST  SEMESTER:  3  lessons. 

Laws  of  steam ;  working  of  engines  in  general ;  different  propellers ;  different  types  of 
boilers  and  their  details ;  causes  and  prevention  of  foaming ;  management  of  the 
boiler,  the  last  in  connection  with  practice  in  the  fire-room. 

SECOND  SEMESTER:  3  lessons. 

Management  of  an  engine;  starting,  stopping,  backing;  object  and  different  methods 
of  expansion ;  expansion  apparatus ;  reversing  gear ;  methods  of  distribution  of 
steam,  in  connection  with  practical  exercises  in  the  engine-room ;  different  ways  of 
reversing. 

THIRD  SEMESTER:  3  lessons. 

Principles  and  working  of  different  condensers  ;  use  and  disposition  of  detail  parts,  as 
cylinder  valves,  cylinder  cocks,  valve-chest  cocks,  condenser  valves,  oiling  appara- 
tus, waste  cock,  hand-reversing  gear,  manometer,  counter,  and  indicator  ;  calcula- 
tion of  horse-power  and  of  tension ;  indicator  diagram. 

FOURTH  SEMESTER:  3  lessons. 

Management  of  the  engine  in  action ;  preservation  of  the  engine  and  boiler ;  putting 
in,  hoisting,  coupling,  and  uncoupling  screw ;  distilling  apparatus ;  different  kinds 
of  fuel,  their  inspection,  and  the  indications  of  their  quality ;  care  of  coal  in  bunkers ; 
use  and  arrangement  of  all  the  pumps  on  board;  nomenclature  of  the  engine  and 
boiler  and  their  parts  in  English  and  German. 

SHIP-BUILDING. 
FIRST  SEMESTER:  1  lesson. 

Ship's  frame,  timbers,  planking,  diagonal  bracing,  &c.,  in  wooden  andiron  ships. 
SECOND  SEMESTER:  1  lesson. 

Frames  employed  in  the  construction  of  iron  ships,  armored  ships,  composite  ships 
and  iron  ships  sheathed  in  wood. 

THIRD  SEMESTER:  1  lesson.  \ 

Construction  of  masts,  tops,  spars,  rudders,  capstans,  and  boats. 

FOURTH  SEMESTER:  1  lesson. 

Survey  of  ships;  means  of  preservation  of  material  employed  in  the  construction  of" 
ships ;  small  repairs  performed  on  board  ship ;  stowage,  and  its  effect  on  the 
stiffness,  stability,  and  motions  of  the  ship  under  steam  and  under  sail ;  general 
review. 

OFFICIAL  DUTIES. 

FIRST  SEMESTER:  2  lessons. 

Organization  of  the  Army  and  Navy  on  a  peace  and  war  footing;  details  of  Naval 
organization  as  contained  in  orders,  regulations,  and  instructions. 

SECOND   SEMESTER :   "2  lessons. 

Official  and  other  relations  of  officers;  garrison-duty;  routine  of  office- work,  and 
preparation  of  official  reports  and  dispatches;  duties  of  first  lieutenant,  navigator, 
officers  of  the  watch,  and  inspection  officers. 


182  NAVAL    EDUCATION GERMANS'. 

THIRD   SEMESTER  :   2  lessons. 

Discipline,  punishments,  military  courts;  legal  status  of  military  persons;  disputes  of 
officers;  courts  of  honor  (Ehrengerichte). 

FOURTH   SEMESTER  :   2  lessons. 

Details  of  administration,  especially  in  relation  to  the  care  of  stores  and  materials, 
and  the  duties  of  boards  of  inspection  and  survey,  and  auditing  boards. 

ENGLISH   AND    FRENCH. 

One  lesson  a  week  in  each  language  during  the  course,  including  exercise  in  writing 
from  dictation,  writing  letters,  conversation,  oral  and  written  translation  from 
German  into  the  foreign  languages  and  vice  versa. 

Elective  subjects  are  international  law,  hygiene,  &c. 

The  course  of  practical  instruction  is  as  follows : 

Navigation. — Practical  instruction  in  navigation  consists  of  daily 
observations,  calculations,  and  nautical  surveying.  Midshipmen  keep 
a  navigation  book,  in  which  are  entered  all  their  observations  of  the 
sun,  moon,  stars,  &c.  These  books  are  regularly  examined  and  corrected 
by  the  navigating  officer.  When  opportunity  offers,  an  excursion  of 
several  days  is  made,  to  survey  part  of  a  bay  or  harbor,  the  midshipmen 
being  in  charge  of  the  navigating  officer  and  one  or  two  others  detailed 
to  assist  him.  At  least  one  such  excursion  is  made  during  each  cruise, 
and  during  its  continuance  all  other  instruction  is  suspended. 

Seamanship. — Practical  instruction  in  seamanship  is  given  partly  by 
the  officer  of  the  deck  to  the  midshipmen  of  the  watch,  and  partly  in 
separate  exercises.  During  the  latter  the  midshipmen  are  stationed  as 
mizzen-topmen,  and,  in  case  of  a  large  number,  a  few  are  stationed  in 
the  gangways.  The  exercise  consists  in  sending  up  and  down  light 
masts  and  yards,  loosing,  furling,  reefing,  and  shifting  sail.  This  exer- 
cise may  also  be  carried  out  in  connection  with  maneuvers.  It  is  held 
at  such  times  as  the  captain  may  direct,  and  more  or  less  frequently, 
according  to  the  proficiency  of  the  midshipmen.  The  test  of  proficiency 
is  that  they  shall  be  able  to  perform  the  exercises  with  as  great  speed 
and  precision  as  the  crew.  Practice  in  boat-sailing  takes  place  when- 
ever opportunity  offers.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  the  cruise,  each 
midshipman  takes  the  deck  in  turn,  and  works  the  ship,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  officer  of  the  watch,  but  giving  the  orders  himself. 

Gunnery. — Midshipmen  are  frequently  exercised  at  the  guns,  with 
broadside  and  pivot  carriages,  and  with  howitzers.  The  exercise  includes 
firing-practice.  Their  stations  at  the  guns  are  changed  from  timo  to 
time,  and  they  are  exercised  sometimes  by  themselves,  and  sometimes 
with  the  crew.  The  preparation  of  pyrotechnic  materials  is  included  in 
the  instruction.  Finally,  the  captain  is  expressly  ordered  to  lose  no 
opportunity  of  sending  the  midshipmen  in  charge  of  the  gunnery  officer 
on  board  foreign  ships  of  war,  to  examine  their  ordnance. 

Steam-engineering. — For  practical  instruction  in  steam-engineering,  in- 
cluding the  management  both  of  fires  and  engines,  midshipmen  are 


MIDSHIPMEN'S  PRACTICE-CRUISE.  183 

divided  into  small  parties.  Instruction  in  the  fire-room  lasts  two  hours 
at  a  time,  and  is  in  charge  of  the  leading  fireman  of  the  watch.  The 
instruction  is  kept  up  until  every  member  of  the  class  shows  complete 
understanding  of  and  proficiency  in  the  work.  In  the  engine-room,  mid- 
shipmen are  in  the  charge  of  the  engineer.  Here  they  learn  to  work  the 
engine  and  to  manage  the  reversing-gear  in  maneuvering  the  ship.  They 
become  familiar  with  the  uses  of  different  valves,  gauges,  cocks,  levers, 
and  other  detail  parts  of  the  engine.  In  addition  to  this,  they  have 
watches  in  the  engine-room,  as  already  described,  a  duty  which  they 
perform  in  turn.  The  greatest  attention  is  paid  to  this  branch  of  instruc- 
tion, and  every  effort  is  made  to  familiarize  the  midshipmen  with  the 
practical  use  of  the  machinery  of  the  ship.  Parties  are  sent  in  charge 
of  officers  to  examine  the  engines  of  foreign  men-of-war  j  and  at  suitable 
times  midshipmen  are  placed  by  themselves  for  several  successive  hours 
in  charge  of  the  engine  or  of  the  fire-room. 

Infantry  and  other  drills. — Instruction  in  fencing  includes  both  broad 
and  small  sword.  In  infantry  tactics  and  the  use  of  small  arms,  instruc- 
tion is  given  by  forming  landing  parties,  at  which  the  midshipmen  are 
detailed  as  non-commissioned  officers.  They  have  also  the  manual  drill 
on  shipboard,  and  frequent  target-practice  with  rifles  and  revolvers. 
In  the  latter  a  high  standard  is  required. 

Oh  the  return  of  the  practice-ship,  the  commanding  officer  sends  to 
the  Admiralty  a  full  report  of  the  proficiency  of  the  midshipmen,  and  a 
provisional  rank-list.  The  midshipmen  receive  certificates  of  service, 
drawn  up  by  the  captain  with  the  assistance  of  the  officers,  containing 
a  statement  of  their  character,  fitness  for  the  service,  and  general  scien- 
tific attainments.  The  reports  and  certificates  state  particularly  whether 
the  midshipman  is  out  of  debt  and  whether  he  is  considered  worthy  of 
admission  to  the  service  as  an  officer.  The  midshipmen  who  receive  a 
favorable  certificate  are  ordered  to  Kiel  to  pass  the  first  officers'  exami- 
nation. 


CHAPTEE   XXYI. 

FIRST  OFFICERS'  EXAMINATION.— ELECTION  AT  KIEL. 

The  first  officers'  examination  (Erste  See-Offizier-Priifung)  is  preliminary 
to  promotion  to  the  grade  of  sub-lieutenant,  and  covers,  in  general,  the 
ground  gone  over  in  the  course  on  board  the  midshipmen's  practice- 
ship.  The  subjects  are  classified  as  follows: 

FIRST  CLASS:  COEFFICIENT,  3. 

1.  Navigation.* — Eight  papers  are  given,  of  which  five  are  practical 
and  three  descriptive.    The  examination  lasts,  in  the  aggregate,  eight 
hours.    It  calls  for  thorough  ability  to  do  a  day's  work  and  increased 
facility  in  dealing  with  the  subjects  required  in  the  midshipmen's  exami- 
nation, and  it  covers  the  programme  of  the  course  in  the  school-ship. 

2.  Seamanship  and  naval  tactics.* — Time  allowed,  six  hours. 

SECOND  CLASS:  COEFFICIENT,  2. 

3.  Gunnery. — Six  papers,  two  of  which  are  on  torpedoes.     Six  hours 
are  allowed  for  the  whole. 

4.  Steam-engineering. — Three  papers  of  one  hour  each ;  one  on  the  erec- 
tion and  arrangement  of  engines;  one  on  their  working,  and  one  on  their 
manipulation. 

5.  Official  duties. — Three  hours. 

THLED  CLASS  :  COEFFICIENT,  1. 

6.  Ship-biiilding. — Three  papers  of  one  hour  each ;  one  on  construction ; 
one  on  the  dynamics  of  ship-building,  and  one  on  materials  of  construc- 
tion. 

7.  French  and  English. 

The  oral  examinations  are  similar  to  the  earlier  ones,  but  more  ad- 
vanced in  character.  At  the  close  of  the  examination  the  usual  reports, 
recommendations,' &c.,  are  sent  in  by  the  board.  Only  one  re-examina- 
tion may  be  granted  in  case  of  failure,  and  this  only  for  special  reasons. 

Midshipmen  who  pass  the  examination  are  thereupon  subjected  to  a 
still  further  test  of  a  remarkable  character,  which  it  is  believed  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  German  service.  An  election  is  held  at  Kiel,  the  naval  sta- 

*  Standard  of  55  per  cent,  required. 


FIRST  OFFICERS'  EXAMINATION.  185 

tion  of  the  Baltic,  to  determine  the  fitness  of  each  midshipman  for  the 
grade  of  sub-lieutenant.  In  this  election  all  the  officers  attached  to  the 
station  have  a  vote. 

Upon  the  request  of  the  captain  of  the  school-ship,  the  Cominander-in- 
Chief  of  the  station  is  required  to  summon  all  the  officers  on  duty,  at  an 
appointed  time,  to  hold  the  election.  The  names  of  the  midshipmen  are 
then  submitted,  in  the  order  of  their  seniority,  for  election  to  the  grade 
of  sub-lieutenant  without  commission.  In  case  of  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  merits  of  a  candidate,  the  following  rules  are  observed : 

1.  If  the  majority  of  votes  is  against  the  candidate  his  career  in  the 
Navy  is  finished,  and  the  next  candidate  is  proposed  without  further 
formalities. 

2.  If  a  minority  of  votes,  or  only  a  few  individual  votes,  are  cast  against 
the  candidate,  the  officers  so  voting  are  required  to  give  the  reasons  for 
their  opinion  in  writing ;  and  this  vote  of  the  minority,  with  the  indorse- 
ments of  the  Coininander-in-Chi6f  of  the  station  and  the  Minister  of  Ma- 
rine, is  to  be  appended  to  the  general  report  or  petition  ( Gesuclisliste) 
addressed  to  the  Emperor.    In  this  report  all  those  who  have  been 
favorably  passed  upon  in  the  election  are  proposed  for  acting  sub-lieu- 
tenants; and  they  become  full  sub-lieutenants  as  vacancies  occur. 


CHAPTEE   XXVII. 

NAVAL  SCHOOL.— OFFICERS'  DIVISION. 
OFFICERS'  PROFESSIONAL  EXAMINATION. 

The  acting  sub-lieutenants  ( Unter-Lieutenants  zur  See  ohne  Patent)  are 
ordered  by  the  Admiralty  to  attend  the  officers'  course  at  the  Naval 
School.  Midshipmen  who  have  passed  their  first  officers'  examination, 
and  are  awaiting  promotion,  are  ordered  there  at  the  same  time.  The 
course  of  instruction  begins  about  the  1st  of  October  and  closes  at  the 
end  of  August  in  the  following  year.  It  completes  the  theoretical  edu- 
cation of  officers  and  prepares  them  for  the  professional  examination 
(See-Offizier-Berufs  Priifung),  held  annually  at  Kiel  in  September  by  the 
board  of  examiners.  The  first  half  of  the  session  is  devoted  rather  to 
purely  scientific  study,  and  the  last  half  to  professional  branches.  The 
dates  of  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  course  are  fixed  by  the  Admiralty, 
and  may  be  varied  according  to  circumstances. 

The  organization  of  the  Naval  School  for  both  the  officers'  and  cadets' 
divisions  has  been  already  described.  The  course  of  the  former  includes 
the  following  subjects : 

I.— NAVIGATION. 

Exact  knowledge  of  the  construction  and  skill  in  the  adjustment  and  use  of  instru- 
ments ;  the  correction  of  errors,  knowledge  of  the  theory,  and  increased  readiness  in 
determining  the  time  of  culmination  and  the  real  and  apparent  rising  and  setting 
of  fixed  stars,  &c.,  and>  in  calculating  longitude  by  chronometer  with  the  necessary 
observations  for  error  and  rate  ;  preparation  of  tables  for  the  correction  of  the  chro- 
nometer; readiness  in  observing  and  in  calculating  local  time  by  the  different 
methods ;  arrangement  and  calculation  of  complete  observations  of  longitude  by 
lunar  distances  from  the  sun,  stars,  and  planets,  with  or  without  measured  altitudes ; 
calculation  of  latitude  according  to  the  methods  previously  given,  and  also  by  ob- 
servation of  simultaneous  altitudes  of  two  fixed  stars ;  certainty  in  determining  the 
variation  and  deviation  of  the  compass  and  the  causes  of  the  latter,  both  on  land  or 
at  sea ;  methods  of  coast  surveying  :  execution  of  a  survey  by  the  use  of  the  plane 
table,  and  preparation  of  charts  and  sketches ;  knowledge  of  sailing  directions  in 
their  dependence  upon  prevailing  winds  and  currents ;  acquaintance  with  the 
marked  features  and  depth  of  water  of  German  harbors,  with  the  shoals,  light- 
houses, and  beacons  of  the  Baltic,  the  Sound,  the  Great  Belt,  Cattegat,  and  the 
North  Sea,  as  well  as  those  near  the  usual  routes  to  the  English  Channel. 

II. — LAND    TACTICS. 

Employment  of  different  kinds  of  troops  in  fighting ;  the  tactical  formations  and  evo- 
lutions of  an  infantry  battalion,  especially  the  company  column  and  skirmishing ; 
general  principles  of  scout  and  picket  service,  on  the  march  and  in  camp ;  influence 
of  the  contour  of  land  upon  modes  of  fighting ;  tactics  of  the  Naval  Brigade  (gelan- 
dete  Scliiffsmannschaft) ;  and  employment  of  boat  and  field  guns  in  landing  parties. 


NAVAL    SCHOOL OFFICERS'    DIVISION.  187 

III. — GUNNERY. 

Extended  review  of  the  subject  of  gunpowder  and  ammunition,  in  general ;  guns,  car- 
riages and  equipments,  small  arms,  and  the  care  and  use  of  ordnance,  especially  of 
rifled  guns;  geuer.il  study  of  foreign  ordnance;  thorough  know  ledge  of  the  working 
of  ordnance,  and  the  attendant  circumstances,  as,  the  form  of  the  trajectory  of  solid 
shot,  and  of  scattering  projectiles,  with  or  without  reference  to  the  resistance  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  rotation ;  preparation  and  use  of  range  tables,  and  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  the  path  of  projectiles ;  firing  at  long  range ;  effect  of  shot,  &c. ;  effect 
of  filing  on  the  gun  itself;  recoil  and  its  prevention;  different  kinds  of  firing,  ac- 
cording to  the  gun,  projectile,  charge,  form  of  trajectory,  direction,  and  object  aimed 
at;  employment  of  different  methods  in  sea  and  coast  fighting;  condition  and  ef- 
fectiveness of  foreign  naval  and  coast  artillery ;  firing  with  small  arms. 

IV.— SHIP-BUILDING   AND   NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Technical  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  materials  used  in  ship-building,  their  care 
and  preservation;  principal  systems  of  ship-building,  their  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages ;  structural  parts  of  a  ship,  and  details  of  construction  of  wooden  and 
iron  ships;  calculation  of  displacement ;  ship-draughting;  application  of  statical 
and  dynamical  laws  to  determine  the  lines  of  a  ship,  and  the  distribution  of  weights, 
stowage,  &c. ;  effect  of  the  form  and  distribution  of  weights,  on  the  character  of 
the  ship  as  a  gun-carrying  machine,  while  stationary  or  in  motion  ;  rolling  moments 
and  pitching  moments ;  preparation  of  sail-draught,  with  necessary  calculations ; 
action  of  sails ;  effect  of  stowage  on  the  efficient  working  of  the  ship  ;  relation  be- 
tween the  ship  and  engine ;  docking  ship,  and  inspection  of  hull,  especially  in  iron 
ships. 

V.— STEAM-ENGINEERING. 

Physical  laws  relating  to  steam ;  temperature,  elasticity,  density,  condensation,  and 
expansion ;  principles  of  construction  and  working  of  different  kinds  of  engines 
and  boilers ;  different  systems  of  propulsion ;  safety  apparatus,  and  boiler  equip- 
ment in  general,  with  governing  principles ;  determination  of  the  saturation  ;  ex- 
pansion apparatus ;  apparatus  for  the  distribution  of  steam ;  principles  and  work- 
ing of  different  condensers ;  the  arrangement  and  action  of  detail  parts  of  the 
engine ;  different  kinds  of  fuel  and  their  advantages,  their  condition,  and  their 
economical  use  and  preservation ;  thorough  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  calculat- 
ing the  performances  of  the  engine,  under  different  circumstances  of  speed  and 
consumption  of  coal;  nominal,  indicated,  and  effective  horse-power;  use  of  the 
indicator  diagram  as  a  basis  of  calculation ;  preservation  of  engine  and  boiler ;  ex- 
plosions ;  different  forms  of  distilling  apparatus  ;  all  the  pumps  used  in  the  German 
Navy. 

VI. — FORTIFICATION. 

1.  Field  fortification. — Nomenclature,  erection  and  disposition  of  redoubts  and  field- 
works,  and  methods  of  attack  and  defense. 

2.  Permanent  fortification. — Main  conditions  for  the  erection  of  permanent  fortifications, 
and  a  brief  survey  of  the  construction  of  existing  forts ;  outlines  of  the  attack  and 
defense  of  fortresses. 

3.  Coast  fortification. — Necessary  conditions  for  shore-batteries,  in  reference  to  choice 
of  site,  details  of  construction,  and  armament;  laying  harbor  obstructions;  use  of 
submarine  torpedoes ;  attack  and  defense  of  coast-batteries. 

VII. — DRAWING. 

Preparation  of  a  sketch  of  coast-line,  a  survey,  and  some  line-drawings  from  subjects 
in  ordnance,  ship-building,  and  engineering. 


188  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

•  VIII. — MATHEMATICS. 

1.  Review  of  arithmetic  and  algebra ;  higher  equations  and  equations  -with  several 
unknown  quantities ;  fundamental  principles  of  the  differential  calculus,  and  its 
application  to  the  development  of  functions  in  series,  and  the  evaluation  of  inde- 
terminate forms ;  maxima  and  minima  of  functions;  interpolation,  and  the  analysis 
of  equations. 

2.  Geometry  and  stereometry ;  analytic  geometry  of  two  and  three  dimensions ;  theory 
of  co-ordinates;  equations  of  surfaces;  conic  sections ;  higher  plane  curves ;  rectifi- 
cation, quadrature,  and  cubature ;  solids  of  revolution ;  Simpson's  rules. 

3.  Trigonometry — The   application  of  spherical  trigonometry  and  the  use  of  tables, 
with  special  reference  to  the  problems  of  navigation. 

4.  Pure  mechanics. — Determination  of  centers  of  gravity  ;  principles  of  dynamics ;  law 
of  falling  bodies;  path  of  projectiles;  the  pendulum;  moments  of  turning,  moments 
of  inertia. 

IX. — PHYSICS    AND   CHEMISTRY. 

Higher  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  chemistry,  and  the  important  substances  and 
processes  in  use  in  naval  arts,  or  in  fabrication  of  ordnance  or  machinery  ;  gravita- 
tion and  phenomena  connected  therewith  ;  molecular  energy,  hardness,  elasticity, 
capillarity,  crystallization ;  statics  and  dynamics  of  solids  and  fluids ;  undulatory 
theory ;  reflection  and  refraction  of  light,  interference,  polarization,  and  chemical 
action  of  light;  use  of  the  spectroscope ;  photography  ;  telescope.  Theory  of  heat ; 
measurement  and  effect  of  heat ;  expansion,  liquefaction,  evaporation,  conduction 
of  heat,  capacity  for  heat,  heat-unit,  and  equivalent  of  work ;  electricity,  magnet- 
ism ;  correlation  of  forces  ;  measurement  and  application  of  forces.  Theory  of  the 
compass,  disturbing  influences,  &c.  Physical  geography  and  meteorology,  with 
practice  in  the  use  of  meteorological  instruments ;  methods  of  graphic  representa- 
tion of  meteorological  phenomena,  law  of  storms,  terrestrial  magnetism. 

The  programme  of  the  officers'  professional  examination  (See-Ojfizier- 
Berufsprufung]  and  the  grouping  of  studies  are  as  follows : 

FIRST  CLASS:  COEFFICIENT,  3. 
i. — NAVIGATION. 

Nine  papers  are  given,  of  one  hour  each,  of  which  six  are  practical  and  three  descrip- 
tive. Of  the  last,  one  is  on  instruments,  one  on  deviation,  and  one  on  coast  sur- 
veying. 

II. — GUNNERY. 

Six  papers,  of  an  hour  each,  of  which  one  is  on  powder,  three  on  the  structure,  fabri- 
cation, and  inspection  of  guns  and  ammunition,  and  two  on  the  use  and  working  of 
gtins. 

III.— STEAM-ENGINEERING. 

Four  papers,  of  which  two  are  descriptive,  and  two  involving  the  theory  of  the  steam- 
engine,  and  calculations.  Three  hours  are  allowed  for  this  subject. 

SECOND  CLASS  :  COEFFICIENT,  2. 
IV. — SHIP-BUILDING  AND  NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

The  same  number  of  papers  and  hours  as  in  the  preceding  subject,  divided  equally 
between  a  mathematical  and  a  descriptive  treatment  of  the  subject. 


NAVAL    SCHOOL OFFICERS'    DIVISION.  189 

V. — LAND   TACTICS. 

One  hour  and  a  half. 

VI. — PHYSICS. 

Four  hours  are  allowed,  and  six  papers  are  given,  on  the  following  subjects,  respect- 
ively :  Chemistry,  mechanics,  light  and  heat,  electricty,  physical  geography,  and 
meteorology.  • 

THIRD  CLASS:  COEFFICIENT,  1. 

VII.— FORTIFICATION. 

Two  papers  of  an  hour  each,  one  on  field  and  permanent  fortification,  and  one  on  coast 
defense. 

VIII. — DRAWING. 

/ 
The  examination  in  drawing  consists  of  the  inspection  of  drawings  made  during  the 

course  of  instruction,  which  must  include  at  least  the  following :  One  hydrographi- 
cal  survey,  one  topographical  survey -(using  the  plane  table);  three  drawings  of 
objects  pertaining  to  ordnance,  one  of  which  is  an  isometric  projection  ;  one  calcu- 
lated trajectory ;  one  working  drawing  for  ship-building ;  and  three  on  detail  parts 
of  engines. 

IX. — MATHEMATICS. 

Four  hours  allowed.  Six  papers  are  given,  of  which  two  are  in  pure  mathematics, 
two  in  geometry  and  stereometry,  one  in  mechanics,  and  one  in  the  application  of 
mathematics  to  navigation. 

Upon  the  close  of  the  examination,  the  board  transmits  to  the  faculty 
of  the  Naval  School  its  proceedings,  and  a  summary  of  the  results  of  the 
examination.  The  faculty  thereupon  makes  up  its  general  report  or 
petition  (Gesuclisliste)  for  the  award  of  certificates  of  proficiency  as  offi- 
cers, to  those  sub-lieutenants  who  have  passed,  which  it  transmits  to  the 
Admiralty,  together  with  the  proceedings  of  the  board,  and  a  list  ar- 
ranged according  to  conduct.  In  the  transactions  of  the  board  must 
appear  recommendations  in  regard  to  officers  who  failed  at  their  exam- 
inations, stating  whether  they  should  be  granted  a  second  trial.  A 
report  to  the  Emperor  is  drawn  up  by  the  Admiralty  on  the  basis  of 
these  reports  from  the  board  and  from  the  Naval  School,  with  the  pre- 
vious certificates  and  reports  from  the  captain  of  the  midshipmen's 
training  ship ;  and  the  Minister  requests  the  award  of  certificates  in 
accordance  therewith,  which  is  forthwith  granted.  Sub-lieutenants  who 
show  extraordinary  proficiency,  receive  the  commendation  of  the  Em- 
peror. The  seniority  of  the  officers  having  been  determined  by  the 
report,  commissions  as  sub-lieutenants,  and  later,  as  lieutenants,  are 
.granted  by  the  Emperor  as  vacancies  occur ;  but  in  any  case  the  passing 
of  the  examination  and  a  total  of  five  years'  sea-service  are  indispensable 
qualifications  for  a  commission. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

THE  NAVAL  ACADEMY. 

The  students  of  the  Naval  Academy  are  of  two  classes,  viz,  officers 
ordered  to  the  Academy  for  study  in  the  regular  course,  and  officers 
entered  as  transient  students  (Hospitanten}.  For  admission  to  the  latter 
class,  that  is,  for  the  purpose  of  attending  a  partial  course  or  certain 
special  lectures,,  it  is  only  necessary  for  an  officer  to  have  permission 
from  the  superior  officer  under  whose  orders  he  is  for  the  time  being. 
The  conditions  of  entrance  as  a  regular  student  are,  however,  much  more 
exacting.  In  the  first  place,  only  those  officers  are  ordered  who  show 
by  their  general  character  and  conduct,  by  their  professional  zeal,  and 
by  their  mental  attainments  that  they  will  make  the  most  of  the  privilege 
of  attendance  at  the  Academy  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  service. 
They  must  then  pass  an  examination  of  a,  peculiar  character.  Certain 
subjects  are  drawn  up  and  published  in  November  of  each  year  by  the 
Admiralty  in  the  departments  of  military  history,  seamanship  and  naval 
tactics,  navigation,  gunnery,  marine  engineering,  and  ship-building. 
The  candidate  selects  any  three  of  these  subjects,  and  is  required  to 
work  up  a  paper  in  each  subject.  The  papers  that  he  prepares  must 
be  sent  in  to  the  Direction  of  the  Naval  Academy  and  School  by  the  1st 
of  June  in  the  following  year,  with  a  statement  of  the  works  of  reference 
and  other  means  of  assistance  employed.  Applications  for  orders  to  the 
Academy  on  behalf  of  any  individual  are  sent,  before  July,  by  his  com- 
manding officer  to  the  Admiralty  through  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
station  ;  and  they  must  contain  a  report  upon  the  qualifications  of  the 
candidate,  and  an  explicit  statement  of  the  points  referred  to  above, 
including  character,  ability,  &c.  At  the  same  time  the  director  of  the 
Academy  presents  to  the  committee  on  studies  a  report  of  the  opinion 
of  the  committee  of  the  faculty  appointed  to  examine  the  papers  of  can- 
didates ;  and  the  papers  themselves  are  also  turned  over  to  the  com- 
mittee on  studies.  The  report  of  the  examining  committee  states  in 
terms  whether  the  candidates,  in  the  papers  they  have  presented,  have 
shown  sufficient  experience,  proficiency,  talent  for  observation,  sound 
judgment,  and  practical  skill  to  appear  qualified  to  receive  with  advan- 
tage a  further  education.  The  reports,  accompanied  by  the  opinion  of. 
the  committee  on  studies,  are  then  sent  to  the  Admiralty,  with  which 
rests  the  final  decision  upon  the  application. 

The  course  at  the  Academy  covers  three  years  or  classes,  the  session 
lasting  from  October  to  May,  in  each  year.     The  general  arrangement 


THE    NAVAL    ACADEMY.  191 

of  the  studies  is  such  that  the  first  or  lowest  class  (Ccetus)  takes  up  the 
auxiliary  sciences  forming  a  groundwork  and  preparation  for  scientific 
study  in  general,  and  for  professional  study  in  particular  j  the  second 
class  continues  this  fundamental  training  and  takes  up  professional 
studies  5  and  the  third  completes  the  professional  course,  and  has  a  full 
course  in  those  branches  of  natural  and  social  science  which  concern 
most  nearly  the  duties  of  a  naval  officer. 
The  subjects  in  the  course  of  instruction  of  each  class  are  as  follows : 

FIRST   CLASS. 

1.  Logic,  ethics,  and  the  elements  of  psychology. 

2.  A  short  review  of  elementary  mathematics,  and  the  fundamental  principles  of 

analytical  geometry  and  higher  calculus. 

3.  Organic  and  inorganic  chemistry. 

4.  The  whole  range  of  pure  physics,  treated  both  experimentally  and  mathematically. 

5.  Naval  organization  and  naval  tactics. 

6.  Tactics  of  land  forces,  considered  strategically,  and  with  special  reference  to  land- 

ing parties. 

7.  Permanent  fortification,  especially  in  coast-defense. 

8.  'Military  administrative  law  and  international  law. 

SECOND  CLASS. 

1.  Thorough  course  in  higher  mathematics,  especially  in  its  application  to  geometry  r 

mechanics,  and  the  calculation  of  probabilities. 

2.  History  of  naval  wars. 

3.  Ordnance  and  gunnery. 

4.  Steam-engineering. 

5.  Naval  architecture. 

6.  Nautical  astronomy. 

7.  Coast  survey. 

8.  Electricity,  particularly  in  its  application  to  torpedoes. 

9.  t Laws  of  war;  maritime  law. 

10.  t  Sanitary  administration,  especially  in  relation  to  the  conditions  of  life  on  ship- 

board. 

11.  t  General  survey  of  the  history  of  civilization. 

THIRD   CLASS. 

1.  History  of  naval  wars. 

2.  Ordnance  and  torpedoes. 

3.  Steam-engineering. 

4.  Naval  architecture. 

5.  Nautical  astronomy,  the  construction  of  charts,  and  the  principles  of  geodesy. 

C.  Observation  with  instruments,  including  the  preparation  and  use  of  all  the  instru- 
ments employed  in  navigation,  and  in  geodetic  surveys. 

7.  Physical  geography. 

8.  t  History  of  civilization. 

9.  t  Construction  of  harbors. 

10.  t  Natural  history  of  the  sea . 

11.  t  Political  economy. 

*  All  the  above  studies  are  obligatory  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  which  the  student 
may  take  or  not,  as  he  pleases. 

t  These  three  subjects  are  electives,  but  the  student  is  required  to  take  one  of  them. 

t  Of  these  four  elective  subjects  each  stitdent  is  required  to  take  two.  All  the  other 
subjects  are  obligatory. 


192  NAVAL  EDUCATION — GERMANY. 

In  addition  to  the  course  described,  opportunity  is  given  to  the  students 
to  extend  and  perfect  their  knowledge  of  foreign  languages.  Instruc- 
tion in  this  branch  includes  English,  French,  and  Danish,  and,  when 
practicable,  Eussian  and  Spanish  also.  All  this  is  independent  of  the 
regular  course,  but  each  student  is  required  during  all  the  years  of  at- 
tendance to  take  instruction  in  at  least  one  foreign  language. 

During  the  summer  months,  from  May  till  the  end  of  September,  the 
students  of  the  Academy  return  to  active  service,  being  ordered  either 
to  a  cruising-ship,  or  to  the  gunnery-ship,  or  attached  for  the  time  to  the 
coast  survey,  or  to  the  torpedo  division.  During  the  session  practical 
instruction  is  confined  to  certain  excursions  made  in  connection  with 
the  course  of  study.  These  include,  in  the  first  class,  topographical 
surveys  by  students  who  have  had  no  such  practice  before;  and,  in  the 
:second  class,  hydrographic  surveys  in  a  small  vessel  attached  to  the 
station.  There  is  also  a  special  course  of  instruction  in  observing  with 
fixed  instruments  at  the  observatory,  and  practice  in  the  use  of  nautical, 
astronomical,  and  geodetic  instruments,  the  latter  in  connection  with 
triangulations  and  geodetic  surveys. 

Instruction  is  given  in  the  usual  academic  manner,  by  lectures  and 
questioning,  supplemented  by  laboratory  work,  and  by  the  use  of  draw- 
ings, models,  and  apparatus,  of  which  there  is  a  full  collection  at  the 
Academy.  The  method  of  instruction  here,  as  in  all  German  institu- 
tions, aims  directly  at  the  thorough  understanding  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  subjects  studied.  To  clear  up  obscurities,  and  to  keep 
^live  an  active  interest  on  the  part  of  the  students,  the  closest  attention 
is  directed  to  special  cases  and  circumstances  as  they  arise  in  the  serv- 
ice, and  to  the  demands  of  actual  practice.  The  freest  interchange  of 
opinions  between  teachers  and  students  is  encouraged,  and  every  method 
is  adopted  to  stimulate  thoughtful  and  intelligent  effort,  by  informal 
expositions  and  discussions,  by  the  preparation  of  written  papers,  and 
toy  frequent  interrogations  of  and  by  the  students. 

Besides  the  questions,  problems,  &c.,  given  out  from  time  to  time 
during  the  session,  short  examinations  are  held  quarterly  in  each  subject. 
Papers  are  set  by  the  professors,  and  each  examination  lasts  an  hour, 
the  students  working  under  the  supervision  of  the  instructor.  The 
results  of  the  examination  are  tabulated,  and  sent,  together  with  the 
report  of  the  director,  to  the  committee  on  studies.  At  the  final  exami- 
nation for  the  year,  another  merit- roll  is  made  out,  giving  the  general 
results  for  the  year ;  and  a  report  of  the  Direction  on  the  work  done  by 
students  is  sent  in  to  the  committee  on  studies.  Upon  the  result  of  these 
examinations  depends  the  return  of  the  student  for  the  next  year's  course. 
At  the  close  of  the  three  years,  a  diploma  or  certificate  is  given  by  the 
committee  on  studies,  to  each  graduate,  and  the  form  of  the  certificate 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  student's  work,  as  shown  from  time 
to  time  in  the  quarterly  and  annual  examinations. 

Officers  ordered  as  students  to  the  Academy  are  entirely  detached 


THE    NAVAL   ACADEMY.  193 

from  their  division  (Marine-Theile).  They  are  under  the  orders  of  the 
director  and  direction  officer,  but  they  are  also  obliged  to  report  sep- 
arately to  the  Oommander-in-Chief,  the  military  members  of  the  com- 
mittee on  studies,  and  the  commanding  officer  of  the  first  division  of 
seamen.  The  temporary  students,  or  Hospitanten,  report  only  to  the 
director  and  direction  officer. 

The  regulations  governing  attendance  at  lectures  and  exercises  are 
exceedingly  precise  and  strict,  considering  the  age  of  the  officer-students. 
Each  has  his  place  in  the  lecture-room,  which  he  must  always  occupy. 
The  most  punctual  attendance  is  required,  and  no  officer  can  absent 
himself  from  an  academic  exercise,  except  in  case  of  illness,  leave  of 
absence,  or  special  dispensation ;  or,  in  the  case  of  hospitants,  details 
for  special  duty.  In  case  of  sickness  the  fact  must  be  reported  without 
delay.  Applications  for  leave  or  for  other  dispensations  are  made  in 
writing  to  the  director,  and  are  only  granted  in  cases  of  urgent  necessity. 
S.  Ex.  51 13 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 
SCHOOL  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  PILOTAGE. 

The  school  of  engineering  and  pilotage  is  at  Kiel.  It  has  its  own  offi- 
cers of  government,  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Naval  School,  they  are 
under  the  general  orders  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Baltic  station. 
At  the  head  of  the  school  is  a  line-officer,  as  director,  who  is  appointed 
by  the  Emperor,  and  who  has  the  same  authority  over  the  personnel  of 
the  institution  as  the  commander  of  a  naval  division.  The  director  is 
therefore  responsible  for  the  military  discipline  of  the  school,  and  has 
general  supervision  of  the  studies  and  course  of  instruction.  He  has  an 
asssistant,  called  the  direction  officer,  acting  in  the  capacity  of  a  chief 
of  staff.  The  latter  is  a  line-officer  ordered  by  the  Ministry  to  this  duty, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  station ;  and 
besides  his  ordinary  duties,  he  has  charge  of  the  director's  office  and  the 
library,  and  he  may  be  detailed  for  the  supervision  of  practical  exercises. 

The  instructors  are  either  military  or  civil  officers  of  the  Navy,  ordered 
on  the  application  of  the  Commander-in-Chief,  or  special  teachers,  or 
military  or  civil  instructors,  under  provisions  similar  to  those  of  the 
Naval  School.  The  director  engages  the  special  teachers,  paying  them 
regular  fees,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Admiralty.  For  the  manage- 
ment and  care  of  instruments,  models,  &c.,  a  lieutenant  is  ordered  as 
house-superintendent  (Haus-  Ver waiter).  The  officers  ordered  as  instruct- 
ors perform  the  duty  of  supervision  of  the  students,  for  which  duties,  as 
well  as  for  instruction,  the  house  superintendent  maybe  specially  detailed. 

Students  are  quartered  and  messed,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  school 
itself,  and  in  the  barracks.  The  rest  board  at  one  of  the  naval  messes 
of  the  station,  or  at  private  boarding-houses,  but  in  company,  as  far  as 
is  practicable. 

The  school  consists  of  three  divisions,  (1)  the  school  of  engineering, 
(2)  the  school  of  pilotage,  and  (3)  the  class  of  paymaster-applicants. 
The  first  and  third  are  the  only  divisions  that  can  be  considered  as  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  system  of  education  of  officers.  The  object  of  the 
pilotage  school  is  to  prepare  for  the  prescribed  examinations  such  boat- 
swain's-mates,  and  quartermasters  as  wish  to  become  navigating  boat- 
swains. It  does  not  therefore  properly  come  within  the  scope  of  the 
present  subject. 

The  object  of  the  school  of  engineering  is  to  give  machinists  (Maschin- 
isten)  a  scientific  training,  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  examinations  for 


SCHOOL    OF    ENGINEERING   AND    PILOTAGE.  195 

promotion  to  mechanical  engineers.    It  includes  four  classes,  as  follows 
(the  lowest  class  being  the  first) : 

1.  Machinist's-mates'  class. 

2.  Second  machinists'  class. 

3.  First  machinists'  class. 

4.  Engineer  class. 

There  are  also  several  parallel  courses,  each  of  which  is  limited  to 
twenty-five  students. 

In  the  machinist's-mates'  class  applicants  for  appointment  as  machin- 
ists (Maschinisten  Applikanteri)  are  prepared  for  the  first  examination. 
In  the  second  machinists'  class  the  machinists  and  upper  machinist's- 
mates  are  prepared  for  the  examination  of  machinist  of  the  watch.  In 
the  first  machinists'  class  machinists  of  the  watch  are  prepared  for  the 
leading  machinists'  examination.  This  course  is  also  open  to  those  ma- 
chinists and  upper  machinist's-mates,  provisionally  examined  at  sea,  who 
have  shown  remarkable  proficiency  in  the  uiachinist's-mates'  examina- 
tion. As  a  general  rule,  each  student  must  attend  the  second  machin- 
ists' class  and  pass  the  examination  before  he  can  be  received  into  the 
next  class.  In  the  engineer  class  upper  machinists,  and  properly  quali- 
fied machinists  near  the  head  of  their  grade,  are  prepared  for  the  engi- 
neer examination  ;  on  passing  which  they  receive  commissions  in  place 
of  their  warrants. 

The  course  for  all  four  classes  generally  begins  on  the  1st  of  October. 
At  that  time  is  held  the  test  examination  for  upper  machinists.  There 
is  a  vacation  of  two  weeks  at  Christmas,  and  the  last  fortnight  in 
March  is  occupied  by  the  examination,  at  the  close  of  which  the  students 
are  transferred  to  their  respective  divisions.  Attendance  upon  the  en- 
gineer and  first  and  second  machinists'  classes  is  indispensable  in  order 
to  receive  permission  to  come  up  for  the  examinations  at  the  close  of 
these  courses. 

The  dockyard  divisions  send  up  those  upper  machinists,  machinists, 
upper  machinist's-mates,  and  applicants  who  are  qualified  to  attend  the 
school,  by  September  1  in  each  year,  and  they  are  transferred  at  the 
time  fixed  for  the  beginning  of  the  course.  At  its  close  they  return 
again  to  their  divisions.  Those  machinists  or  upper  machinists  who 
have  not  been  classed  as  good  at  the  preceding  examination,  are  required 
to  pass  anew  at  the  beginning  of  their  course  by  presenting  an  essay  on 
a  prescribed  subject,  and  performing  certain  other  exercises.  The  di- 
rector decides  as  to  the  fitness  of  the  candidates,  and  those  who  fail  are 
immediately  sent  back  to  the  dockyards. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  arranged  in  accordance  with  a  programme 
approved  each  year  by  the  Admiralty.  The  only  addition  allowed  to 
the  prescribed  course  is  in  a  general  permission  to  give  extra  instruc- 
tion in  modern  languages  not  specified  in  the  programme,  which  are 
useful  in  maritime  intercourse,  and  for  which  there  may  be  teachers  at 
the  school. 


196  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

For  the  examinations  examining  boards  are  convened  by  the  Com- 
mander-in-Chief,  at  the  request  of  the  director.  The  oral  examination 
is  conducted  by  the  board.  For  the  written  examination  each  member 
of  the  board  prepares  a  paper  on  all  the  subjects ;  and  from  these  the 
president  of  the  board  makes  a  selection.  The  instructors  of  the  school 
cannot  examine  at  all  in  their  own  branches  of  instruction,  except  in- 
formally. 

The  scale  of  marks,  and  method  of  obtaining  final  results,  are  nearly 
similar  to  those  used  by  the  board  for  the  examination  of  line  officers, 
and  already  described.  A  final  mark,  equivalent  to  5,  "  satisfactory " 
(55  per  cent,  of  the  maximum),  is  required  in  order  to  pass;  but  if  the 
candidate  has  less  than  77  per  cent,  in  the  majority  of  subjects  he  is 
characterized  as  having  "  barely  passed."  There  are  also  certain  sub- 
jects in  each  of  which  55  per  cent,  is  required. 

At  the  final  meeting  (Schliiss  Konferenz)  of  the  board  a  report  (Prilfungs- 
ProtoTcoll)  is  drawn  up,  containing  the  names  of  the  candidates  in  order 
of  merit,  and  recommendations  as  to  re-examination,  &c.  Certificates 
are  granted  at  the  same  time,  stating  the  character  and  aptitude  for  the 
service 'of  the  candidates  and  their  general  qualifications  for  promotion. 
Tn  cases  of  re-examination  the  necessary  preparation  may  be  made  at 
the  school,  if  the  director  permits,  and  if  it  is  attended  with  no  incon- 
venience; otherwise,  the  unsuccessful  candidate  must  depend  on  himself. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  chiefly  devoted  to  steam-engineering, 
mathematics,  and  modern  languages.  Considerable  time  is  given  to 
physics  and  chemistry,  but  the  course  is  not  of  a  very  high  character. 
The  details  of  instruction  are  as  follows : 

I. — MACHINTST'S-MATES'  CLASS. 
(20  lessons  a  week.) 

1. — STEAM-ENGINEERING:    3  lessons. 

General  study  of  steam  and  its  properties  as  far  as  is  necessary  for  the  management  of 
a  ship's  engine,  but  omitting  all  calculations ;  different  kinds  of  engines,  high  and 
low  pressure,  compound  engines,  &c.,  and  their  details,  and  the  peculiarities  of 
various  types;  different  types  of  boilers;  propellers  and  fitting  them  ;  boat  engines 
and  boilers,  and  their  details ;  care  and  preservation  of  engines,  and  the  prompt 
repair  of  injuries;  auxiliary  engines  and  machinery  used  on  shipboard,  including 
that  for  raising  the  anchor  and  for  turning  turrets,  steam-steering  apparatus,  ven- 
tilating apparatus,  fire-extinguishers,  &c. ;  distilling  apparatus,  its  details,  use, 
and  preservation ;  diving  apparatus  ;"German  and  foreign  measures,  weights,  and 

coins.* 

2. — MATHEMATICS  :  4  lessons. 

Arithmetic ;  algebra  through  equations  of  first  degree  with  one  unknown  quantity ; 
elementary  plane  geometry. 

3. — MECHANICS  :  2  lessons. 

Elementary  propositions  relating  to  motion,  velocity,  acceleration.  The  combination, 
division,  and  equilibrium  of  forces ;  laws  of  inertia,  reciprocal  action,  gravity, 
mechanical  work.  . 

*  Classified  under  this  head  in  the  authorized  school  programme. 


SCHOOL    OF   ENGINEERING   AND    PILOTAGE.  197 

4. — PHYSICS:  1  lesson. 

Physical  properties  of  bodies,  expansion,  volume,  form,  impenetrability  and  porosity, 
attraction,  gravity,  weight,  divisibility,  cohesion,  density,  hardness,  elasticity ;  laws 
of  pressure  of  gases,  and  instruments  relating  thereto ;  laws  of  hydrostatic  pressure, 
hydraulic  press,  Segner's  water-wheel,  turbine,  &c. 

5.— CHEMISTRY  :  1  lesson. 

Elementary  principles  and  processes,  filtration,  distillation,  evaporation,  crystalliza- 
tion; reaction  and  reagents;  chemical  combinations  and  elements;  salts,  metals,  and 
metalloids;  affinity  and  atomic  weight;  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon. 

6. — MECHANICAL  DRAWING:   5  lessons. 

7. — GERMAN  :  2  lessons. 

Preparation  of  an  essay  free  from  rhetorical  and  orthographical  errors;  word  forma- 
tion and  classification ;  punctuation. 

8. — ENGLISH  :  2  lessons. 
Reading  and  translation  of  easy  authors. 

The  examination  of  machinist-applicants  who  have  completed  the 
course  is  held  as  usual  by  a  board,  composed  of  the  director  of  the  school 
as  president ;  a  lieutenant-commander  (Kapitan- Lieutenant)  for  German 
and  English  j  a  mechanical  engineer,  for  mechanics  and  drawing;  and  a 
constructing  engineer,  for  engineering  and  mathematics,  physics,  and 
chemistry. 

The  examination  in  English  is  oral,  and  is  purely  optional ;  in  all  the 
other  subjects  there  are  required  examinations,  both  oral  and  written. 
In  the  first  class  of  subjects,  with  a  coefficient  of  three,  are  engineering, 
mathematics,  and  mechanics ;  in  the  second  class,  physics,  chemistry, 
drawing,  and  German  j  and  in  the  third  class,  English.  In  each  of  the 
first-class  subjects,  55  per  cent,  is  required  in  order  to  pass.  Sixteen 
papers  are  given  in  all ;  of  which  one  is  in  German ;  two  each  in  mechan- 
ics, physics,  and  chemistry ;  four  in  mathematics ;  and  five  in  steam- 
engineering,  two  of  which  are  on  weights  and  measures. 

After  passing  the  examination,  the  machinist-applicants  are  qualified 
for  the  grade  of  upper  machinist's-mates,  and  are  prepared  to  enter  the 
second  machinists'  class. 

II. — SECOND  MACHINISTS'  CLASS. 
(22  lessons  a  week. ) 

1. — STEAM  ENGINEERING  :   4   leSSOUS. 

History  of  the  development  of  the  steam-engine,  and  especially  of  the  marine  engine ; 
the  origin  and  extension  of  steam  navigation;  distilling  apparatus;  diviug  appa- 
ratus in  all  its  details,  its  preservation,  use  and  repair  ;  different  systems  of  pumps 
for  armored  ships,  details  and  use,  and  instructions,  for  critical  occasions;  arrangement 
and  effective  use  of  a  ship's  machinery  in  all  its  parts ;  arrangement  of  different  kinds 
of  boilers;  super- heaters,  flues,  chimneys,  uptakes,  propellers;  dynamometer,  indi- 
cator, interpretation  of  indicator  diagrams. 


198  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

2.— MATHEMATICS  :  3  lessons. 

Arithmetic ;  algebra,  through  equations  of  the  first  degree,  with  several  unknown  quan 
tities ;  geometry  and  mensuration ;  trigonometric  functions. 

3.— MECHANICS  :  2  lessons. 

Laws  of  statical  moments ;  determination  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  lines,  surfaces, 
and  solids ;  Simpson's  and  Guldinus's  rules,  and  their  application  to  the  computation 
of  the  volume  of  solids,  by  first  determining  centers  of  gravity ;  laws  of  friction. 

4. — PHYSICS  :  2  lessons. 

Laws  of  heat;  thermometer,  pyrometer,  diffusion  of  heat  by  radiation,  transmission, 
absorption,  and  conduction ;  expansion  from  heat ;  determination  of  hygrometric 
state ;  specific  heat ;  sources  of  heafy;  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat ;  heat  developed 
by  chemical  combinations ;  cosmic  and  terrestrial  heat ;  vital  heat ;  measurement  of 

heat. 

5. — CHEMISTRY:  2  lessons. 

Properties  of  the  metalloids ;  potassium,  sodium,  calcium ;  iron  and  its  fabrication ; 
cast  and  wrought  iron,  slag,  cemented  steel,  Bessemer  steel,  cast  steel. 

6.— MECHANICAL  DRAWING:   3  leSSOnS. 

7. — GERMAN:  2  lessons. 
Preparation  of  essays;  rhetorical  rules ;  grammatical  analysis. 

8.— ENGLISH  :  3  lessons. 
Examination  optional. 

9. — OFFICIAL  DUTIES  :  1  lesson. 

Organization  of  the  Navy ;  general  acquaintance  with  the  army  organization  ;  gen- 
eral regulations  for  warrant  officers  ( Deck  Offiziere) ;  instructions  for  machinists  afloat. 

At  the  examination  the  regulations  as  to  the  composition  of  the  board, 
classification  of  subjects,  and  method  of  examination  are  the  same  as 
those  for  the  previous  class.  Of  the  eighteen  papers  given,  one  is  in 
German;  two  each  in  mechanics,  physics,  chemistry,  and  official  duties; 
three  in  engineering ;  and  six  in  mathematics,  of  which  two  are  in  arith- 
metic and  algebra,  and  two  each  in  geometry  and  trigonometry. 

III.— FIRST  MACHINISTS'  CLASS. 

(22  lessons  a  week.) 
1. — STEAM  ENGINEERING:  4 lessons. 

The  mechanical  theory  of  heat ;  general  theory  of  the  steam-engine ;  calculations  en- 
tering into  actual  practice,  as  horse-power,  consumption  of  coal  and  of  water  for 
ascertained  distances  and  given  periods  of  time,  according  to  different  indications 
of  the  engine ;  principles  of  construction  of  the  various  systems  of  engines,  espec- 
ially their  reversing  gear,  condensers,  and  pumps ;  different  kinds  of  boilers,  with 
their  various  stays  and  braces ;  propellers  of  all  kinds ;  method  of  proceeding  in  pre- 
paring for  action  as  well  as  in  case  of  damages  or  injuries ;  proper  preparation  of 
the  engine  and  boilers  when  going  into  commission  and  precautions  for  their  preser- 
vation when  going  out  of  commission ;  blowing  out  of  the  boiler ;  boiler-record 
(Kessel-protokoll) ;  properties  of  engine  materials ;  good  and  bad  qualities  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  hard  coal  and  the  care  of  coal. 


SCHOOL    OF   ENGINEERING    AND   PILOTAGE.  199 

2. — MATHEMATICS  :  4  lessons. 

Algebra  through  quadratics ;  plane  geometry ;  deduction  and  application  of  formulas 
of  plane  trigonometry ;  stereometry,  including  calculation  of  surfaces  and  contents 
of  solid  bodies. 

3. — MECHANICS  :  2  lessons. 

Mechanical  powers,  lever,  pulley,  screw,  inclined  plane ;  principle  of  virtual  velocities; 
law  of  the  pendulum,  of  falling  bodies ;  Keppler's  laws ;  centrifugal  force ;  vis  viva. 

4. — PHYSICS  :  1  lesson. 

Laws  of  equilibrium  and  motion  of  fluids ;  metacenter ;  specific  gravity ;  aerometer ; 
surface-tension ;  capillarity,  osmose,  discharge  of  fluids.  Laws  of  equilibrium  and 
motion  of  gases ;  barometer ;  Dalton's  and  Mariotte's  laws ;  diffusion ;  Giffard's  in- 
jector. The  laws  of  heat  in  their  application  to  meteorological  phenomena;  winds 
and  currents,  climatic  influences,  magnetism. 

5. — CHEMISTRY  :   1  leSSOU. 

Mining,  and  the  treatment  of  ores  ;  properties  of  the  m§tals  used  in  engine  building; 
principal  combinations  of  these  metals ;  technical  processes. 

6. — MECHANICAL  DRAWING:  4  lessons. 

Preparation  of  working  drawings  of  the  parts  of  the  engine,  from  which  repairs  might 
be  made. 

7. — GERMAN:  2  lessons. 

Preparation  of  theses ;  higher  rhetoric. 

8. — ENGLISH:  3  lessons. 
Oral  examination  only. 

9. — OFFICIAL  DUTIES  :    1  leSSOU. 

Military  dispatches  and  papers,  such  as  the  draught  of  reports  and  opinions ;  prepa- 
ration of  request*,  telegrams,  &c. ;  military  courts,  regulations  in  regard  to  punish- 
ment ;  service  regulations  for  leading  machinists ;  regulations  for  the  care  and  dis- 
position of  stores  and  materials  of  a  ship  in  commission. 

The  board  of  examiners  is  composed  of  the  director  of  the  school  as 
president;  a  lieutenant-commander  for  German,  English,  and  official 
duties ;  a  constructing  engineer  for  engineering,  mechanics,  and  draw- 
ing ;  and  two  instructors  at  the  Naval  School,  one  of  them  for  mathe- 
matics, the  other  for  physics  and  chemistry.  In  the  classification  of 
subjects,  engineering,  mathematics,  mechanics,  and  physics  are  in  the 
first  class ;  chemistry,  drawing,  and  German  in  the  second ;  and  Eng- 
lish and  official  duties  in  the  third.  The  number  of  papers  set  is  eight- 
een, of  which  one  is  in  German;  two  each  in  mechanics,  physics,  chem- 
istry, and  official  duties;  three  in  engineering,  two  of  them  descriptive, 
and  one  of  calculations ;  and  six  in  mathematics,  two  in  arithmetic  and 
algebra,  two  in  geometry,  and  the  others  in  trigonometry  and  stereom- 
etry. In  drawing  the  board  may  either  pass  upon  the  work  already 
performed  or  allow  a  certain  time  in  the  examination  for  a  new  drawing. 


200  NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 

IV. — ENGINEER  CLASS. 
(14  lessons  a  week.) 

1. — STEAM-ENGINEEBING  :  2  lessons. 

Advanced  course  in  the  theory  of  heat,  with  special  reference  to  the  properties  of 
steam ;  principles  governing  the  action  of  condensers ;  complete  course  in  calcula- 
tions of  work,  &c.,  performed  by  an  engine  ;  theory  of  Zeuner's  diagrams  for  con- 
struction and  control  of  the  valve-gear ;  contrivances  for  expansion,  and  their  gov- 
erning principles ;  economical  engines  and  their  use. 

2. — MATHEMATICS  :  2  lessons. 

Arithmetic ;  algebra,  to  cubic  equations ;  review  of  the  whole  of  plane  geometry  and 
of  plane  trigonometry ;  mensuration  of  surfaces  and  solids. 

3.— MECHANICS  :  2  lessons. 
Short  review  of  statics  and  kinematics ;  laws  of  equilibrium ;  theory  of  machines. 

•4. — PHYSICS:  1  lesson. 

Wave  motion;  acoustics,  optics,  electricity,  and  magnetism. 

5. — CHEMISTRY  :  1  lesson. 

Preliminary  study  of  organic  chemistry ;  atomic  and  molecular  weight ;  chemical 
formulas ;  density  of  steam ;  the  heaviest  alcohols,  ether,  sebaceous  acids,  fats, 
glycerine;  hydrocarbons  (petroleum,  paraffine,  &c.,  sugar,  starch,  cellulose);  gun- 
powder and  other  explosives. 

6.— GERMAN:  1  lesson. 

Essays  and  reports. 

7. — ENGLISH  :  2  lessons. 

Beading  and  translation  of  technical  works ;  practice  in  writing  and  in  translation 
from  German  into  English ;  practice  in  conversation. 

8. — FRENCH  :  2  lessons. 

Grammar ;  translation  of  easy  French  works ;  translation  into  French ;  conversation. 
9. — OFFICIAL  DUTIES  :  1  lesson. 

Naval  and  military  organization;  dispatches  and  reports;  official  relations  between 
executive  officers  and  engineers  (DienatverJiciltnisse  der  Offiziere  und  Maschinen-Ingen- 
ieure"). 

Of  the  above  subjects,  engineering  only  belongs  to  the  first  class, 
German  and  English  to  the  second,  and  French  to  the  third.  There  is 
no  examination  in  mathematics,  chemistry,  or  official  duties ;  and  the 
remaining  branches,  mechanics  and  physics,  are  joined  in  the  examina- 
tion with  engineering.  In  engineering  and  German  55  per  cent,  is 
required  in  each  subject  in  order  to  pass. 

The  object  of  the  examination  at  the  close  of  the  course  of  the  engi- 
neer class  is  to  test  the  proficiency  of  candidates  for  promotion  to  the 
grade  of  assistant  mechanical  engineer  (Haschinen-unter-Ingenieur),  the 


SCHOOL    OF   ENGINEERING   AND   PILOTAGE.  201 

lowest  commissioned  rank  in  this  branch  of  the  service.  The  board  is 
composed  of  the  director  of  the  school,  the  director  of  engine  construc- 
tion at  the  dockyard,  or  his  deputy,  as  examiner  in  engineering,  and 
the  instructor  in  languages  at  the  Naval  Academy  as  examiner  in  Ger- 
man, English,  and  French. 

The  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  station  is  required  to  attend  the  oral 
examinations  and  to  sign  the  report  embodying  the  result.  In  the 
examination  in  engineering  three  extensive  papers  are  given,  two  of 
which  are  descriptive  in  their  character,  and  the  third  dealing  exclu- 
sively with  calculations.  The  oral  examination  is  chiefly  upon  the  con- 
struction and  use  of  economical  engines.  In  German  an  essay  is  pre- 
pared. In  English  and  French  the  examination  is  both  oral  and  written, 
and  calls  for  a  high  standard  of  proficiency  in  reading,  translation,  and 
conversation,  especially  in  English. 

PAYMASTER-APPLICANTS'  CLASS. 

The  object  of  this  class  or  school  is  to  give  to  applicants  for  appoint- 
ment as  naval  paymasters,  the  necessary  preliminary  training  for  their 
profession.  For  convenience  of  organization  it  is  made  a  part  of  the 
machinists'  and  pilotage  school,  and  it  has  the  same  direction  and  gov- 
ernment. The  instructors  are  naval  officers,  intendants,  and  paymas- 
ters. They  are  detailed  for  this  service,  in  addition  to  their  other  du- 
ties, by  the  Commander-in-Chief  at  Kiel,  on  recommendation  of  the 
director  of  the  school  j  and  they  receive  extra  pay  according  to  the  work 
they  perform. 

The  paymaster- applicants  are  ordered  to  attendance  at  the  school  by 
the  Commander-in-Chief  at  Kiel.  If  they  belong  to  the  division  of  the 
North  Sea,  their  orders  are  issued  upon  an  understanding  between  the 
commanding  officers  at  Kiel  and  Wilhelmshafen.  They  may  perform 
regular  duty  at  Kiel  while  pursuing  their  studies  in  the  school,  and 
they  have  accordingly  to  maintain  official  relations  not  only  with  the  school 
director,  but  also  with  the  commander  of  the  naval  battalion,  and  the 
intendant  or  the  commander  of  the  naval  division,  according  to  their 
assignment. 

The  course  lasts  from  October  1  to  March  31,  and  the  studies  are  so 
arranged  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  regular  duties  of  the  students. 
The  studies  comprised  in  the  course  are  as  follows ; 

1.  Laws  of  exchange  and  commercial  law :  2  hours  a  week. 

2.  Currencies,  merchandise,  and  mercantile  affairs :  2  hours. 

3.  Official  duties :  1  hour. 

4.  English :  4  hours. 

5.  French  :  2  hours. 

6.  Other  modern  languages  or  stenography :  1  hour. 

All  the  duties  are  obligatory  except  the  last,  which  is  purely  optional  j 
but  the  programme  is  subject  to  such  minor  modifications  as  the  director 
and  instructors  may  judge  necessary. 


202 


NAVAL  EDUCATION GERMANY. 


IIJAt  the  close  of  the  course,  examinations,  both  oral  and  written,  are 
held  in  all  the  subjects.  Certificates  of  graduation  are  given  to  the 
students,  signed  by  the  director  and  all  the  instructors,  stating  the 
acquirements,  conduct,  and  application  of  the  students.  In  case  of  fail- 
ure, the  student  may  be  recommended  for  a  second  trial  of  the  course  j 
and  the  final  decision  as  to  this  recommendation  rests  with  the  Com- 
mander-in-Ohief  of  the  station. 


ZFJLIR/T 


ITALY. 


CHAPTEE   XXX. 

THE  NAVAL  SCHOOL  (Regia  scuola  di  marina). 

The  Eoyal  Naval  School  of  Italy  is  composed  of  two  divisions,  the 
first  at  Naples  and  the  second  at  Genoa.  The  course  lasts  four  years, 
of  which  the  first  two  are  passed  in  the  first  division,  and  the  last  two 
in  the  second.  The  Naples  school  may  therefore  be  considered  as  pre- 
paratory to  that  of  Genoa. 

The  existence  of  two  separate  schools  is  explained  by  the  fact  that 
upon  the  formation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  in  1861,  the  government 
found  itself  in  possession  of  two  educational  establishments,  one  of  which, 
had  formerly  belonged  to  the  Sardinian  Government,  the  other  to  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Neither  was  a  school  of  a  very  high  order, 
but  it  was  thought  best  to  build  upon  the  foundations  already  existing 
rather  than  to  attempt  immediately  the  formation  of  a  new  establishment. 
The  schools,  therefore,  continue  to  occupy  their  antiquated  and  ill-adapted 
buildings — at  Naples,  the  old  palace  of  the  consulate,  and  at  Genoa,  the 
former  convent  of  Santa  Teresa — but  their  courses  have  been  so  arranged 
that  they  form  respectively  the  preliminary  and  advanced  stages  of  a 
single  system  of  education. 

This  arrangement  is,  of  course,  attended  with  inconveniences,  and  is 
particularly  objectionable  on  the  score  of  expense,  as  it  nearly  doubles 
the  necessary  force  of  officers,  instructors,  and  employes.  Attempts 
have  accordingly  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  unite  the  schools,  or  to 
establish  a  new  school,  with  an  academy  for  advanced  instruction,  at 
Spezia,  Leghorn,  or  elsewhere.  When  such  a  plan  is  adopted  it  will 
doubtless  lead  to  essential  changes  in  the  details  of  the  present  system, 
but  as  yet  none  of  the  attempts  at  reorganization  have  succeeded. 

The  examination  for  admission  takes  place  on  the  15th  of  June  of  each 
year,  before  a  commission  appointed  by  the  Minister  of  Marine.  Appli- 
cations from  those  who  desire  to  become  candidates  are  sent  some  time 
previously  to  the  commandant  of  the  school  at  Naples.  Candidates 
must  be  natives  of  Italy,  and  they  must  be  not  less  than  thirteen  nor 
more  than  seventeen  years  of  age  at  the  date  of  admission.  The  phys- 
ical qualifications  are  similar  to  those  of  other  countries,  and  are  ascer- 
tained by  the  usual  medical  examination. 

The  mental  examination  is  both  written  and  oral,  the  latter  being  con- 


206  NAVAL    EDUCATION— ITALY. 

ducted  in  public.  The  subjects  of  the  examination  are  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, geometry,  history,  geography,  Italian,  and  French.  The  examina- 
tion in  arithmetic  embraces  the  whole  subject,  including  common  and 
decimal  fractions,  interest,  proportion,  and  roots.  In  algebra  it  extends 
through  quadratic  equations,  summation  of  series,  exponential  equa- 
tions, and  logarithms.  In  geometry  it  includes  the  whole  of  plane  geom- 
etry, and  measurement  of  superficial  areas  and  volumes  of  sections  of 
the  sphere,  cone,  &c.  History  is  confined  to  sacred  history  and  the  his- 
tory of  Greece  and  Rome.  In  Italian,  candidates  must  write  an  essay 
and  answer  questions  in  grammar.  In  French,  the  examination  includes 
reading,  translation,  and  grammar. 

The  examination  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  scientific  and  literary ; 
the  first  includes  arithmetic,[algebra,  and  geometry ;  the  second,  litera- 
ture, history,  geography,  French,  and  handwriting.  The  work  is  marked 
on  a  scale  of  10,  and  the  mark  in  each  branch  is  multiplied  by  the  co- 
efficient of  the  branch,  the  sum  of  the  products  giving  the  final  result. 
In  each  of  the  scientific  subjects  the  coefficient  is  3,  in  handwriting  1, 
and  in  all  the  others  2.  In  order  to  pass,  candidates  are  required  to 
obtain  60  per  cent,  in  each  of  the  mathematical  subjects  and  in  Italian, 
and  60  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  aggregate  in  the  remainder.  If  the 
number  of  successful  candidates  is  greater  than  the  number  of  vacan- 
cies, the  examination  becomes  competitive  in  its  character,  as  only  the 
highest  on  the  list  are  accepted.  But  candidates  who  are  rejected  either 
from  the  want  of  vacancies  or  from  failure  to  pass,  are  allowed  to  com- 
pete the  next  year  if  they  are  still  within  the  prescribed  limits  of  age. 

Students  at  the  naval  school  are  required  to  pay  the  government 
a  fee  of  900  lire,  or  $180,  per  annum,  payable  quarterly  in  advance.  A 
certain  sum,  however,  is  annually  appropriated  by  the  Ministry  for 
scholarships  and  half  scholarships,  equal  in  amount  to  the  required  fees. 
These  are  given  each  year  to  the  student  who  passed  highest  in  his 
class  at  the  examination  of  the  preceding  year,  counting  the  examina- 
tion for  admission  as  the  first.  The  full  scholarship  is  only  given  to 
'  sons  of  naval  officers  or  of  civil  functionaries  connected  with  the  naval 
administration.  The  outfit  required  by  regulation  is  provided  at  the 
student's  expense  and  is  not  covered  by  the  fees;  students  are  also  re- 
quired to  provide  their  own  text-books  and  instruments. 

There  is  an  annual  practice-cruise,  beginning  always  on  the  15th  of 
July  and  ending  about  the  1st  of  November.  It  is  followed  immediately 
by  the  session  of  eight  months,  lasting  until  the  1st  of  July.  The  first 
fortnight  in  July  is  always  devoted  to  the  annual  examination.  The 
first  practice-cruise  follows  immediately  the  examination  for  admission, 
and  therefore  precedes  the  first  session  of  theoretical  instruction.  In  this 
way  the  first  three  years  are  passed.  The  fourth  year,  called  the  com- 
plementary course,  is  divided  into  two  parts :  the  first,  of  eight  months, 
from  November  to  June  20,  is  the  final  course  of  the  school  at  Genoa; 
the  second,  of  six  months,  is  spent  on  board  a  practice-ship,  but  includes 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  207 

rather  more  theoretical  instruction  than  is  generally  the  case  in  practice- 
cruises. 

The  personnel  of  the  schools  is  divided  into  the  corps  of  administra- 
tion and  the  corps  of  instruction.  The  corps  of  administration  includes 
at  each  school  (Naples  and  Genoa)  the  commandant,  two  lieutenants  as 
inspecting  officers,  a  chaplain,  a  paymaster  or  storekeeper,  and  four 
naval  officers  to  assist  in  executive  duties  (aiutante).  The  corps  of  in- 
struction consists  at  Naples  of  a  director  of  studies,  eleven  civil  pro- 
fessors, a  mechanical  engineer,  a  writing-master  and  three  tutors ;  at 
Genoa,  of  a  director  of  studies,  nine  civil  professors,  five  officers  detailed 
for  duties  of  instruction,  and  three  tutors. 

The  professorships  are  distributed  as  follows : 

At  Naples  : 

Algebra,  trigonometry,  navigation. 

Analytical  and  descriptive  geometry. 

Calculus. 

Physics  and  chemistry. 

Italian  literature  (2). 

Geography. 

French  (2). 

English. 

Drawing. 
At  Genoa : 

Pure  mechanics. 

Applied  mechanics  and  theory  of  ship  construction. 

Nautical  astronomy. 

Nautical  surveying. 

Italian  literature. 

History. 

Geography  (political). 

French. 

English. 

Naval  construction. 

Fortification  and  military  art. 

Gunnery.  ^  Officers  detailed  for  this  duty. 

Hydrographic  drawing. 

Naval  tactics. 

There  are  also  at  each  school  two  sword-masters,  a  dancing-master, 
a  petty  officer  to  give  instruction  in  knotting  and  splicing,  and  instruct- 
ors in  great-gun  drill,  in  small-arm  drill,  and  in  gymnastics.  The  total 
number  of  persons  directly  engaged  in  instruction  and  government  is 
about  sixty.  All  are  approved  by  the  Ministry  except  the  tutors  and 
subordinate  masters,  who  are  named  by  the  commandant  and  approved 
by  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  department.  The  command  of  the 
practice-ship  is  usually  given  to  the  commandant  of  one  school  or  the 
other.  In  addition  to  the  regular  officers  of  the  ship,  an  instructor  in 
navigation  is  regularly  detailed  by  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  de- 
partment. One  of  the  officers  of  the  ship  is  the  instructor  in  gunnery. 

At  each  school  there  are  two  boards  of  government — the  council  of 


208  NAVAL   EDUCATION—ITALY. 

administration  and  the  superior  council — corresponding  to  the  two  divis- 
ions of  the  staff  of  the  establishment.  Each  of  these  is  presided  over 
by  the  commandant  of  the  school.  The  council  of  administration  is  com- 
posed of  the  commandant,  the  senior  inspecting  officer,  the  chaplain, 
the  senior  executive  adjutant,  and  the  paymaster.  It  is  charged  with 
all  questions  of  administration  and  prepares  the  estimates;  it  audits 
accounts,  and  is  responsible  for  all  receipts  and  disbursements.  The 
accounting  officer,  though  a  member  of  the  council,  has  only  a  consult- 
ing voice ;  he  also  performs  the  duty  of  secretary. 

The  council  reserves  200  lire  a  year  from  the  fees  of  each  student, 
which  are  credited  to  him  on  the  books,  and  expended  for  the  repair  and 
replenishment  of  his  wardrobe.  All  this  is  done  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  student  concerned.  The  cast-off  clothing  and  effects  of  stu- 
dents are  sold  and  the  proceeds  turned  into  the  treasury  of  the  school,  to 
be  disposed  of  as  the  council  sees  lit.  Any  balance  of  the  fees  reserved 
remaining  to  the  credit  of  a  student  is  paid  over  to  him  at  the  close  of 
his  course. 

The  superior  council  is  composed  of  the  commandant,  the  director  of 
•studies,  the  senior  professor,  the  professor  of  history  or  of  literature,  and 
one  other  professor,  the  last  being  selected  by  the  commandant.  The 
superior  council  is  authorized  to  direct  and  carry  out  the  instruction  in 
conformity  with  the  general  outline  prescribed  by  the  Ministry;  to  select 
text-books ;  to  name  the  members  of  the  staff  of  professors ;  to  conduct 
the  annual  examinations ;  to  report  upon  the  result  of  the  examinations; 
to  award  prizes,  and  to  make  an  annual  report  in  detail  upon  the  pro- 
gress of  the  school.  It  has  also  authority  to  make  recommendations  to 
the  ministry  in  regard  to  the  following  subjects :  Changes  in  the  course, 
charges  for  instruction,  cases  of  negligence  or  misconduct,  discharge 
of  undeserving  students.  The  council  has  meetings  regularly  once  a 
quarter,  and  at  other  times  as  the  commandant  may  direct  or  the  mem- 
bers desire.  The  essential  feature  of  the  system  is  the  entire  separation 
of  the  details  of  instruction,  (i.  e.,  theoretical  instruction),  and  adminis- 
tration, except,  of  course,  as  they  are  united  in  the  person  of  the  com- 
mandant. With  this  excepljjon,  none  of  the  officers  in  the  administra- 
tive branch  have  anything  to  do  with  instruction,  nor  have  the  instructors 
any  part  in  the  military  administration. 

The  commandant  of  the  school  is  responsible  to  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  department,  and  holds  to  that  officer  much  the  same  relation 
that  the  captain  of  the  Borda  holds  to  the  Prefet  Maritime  at  Brest.  He 
makes  a  formal  inspection  of  the  school  every  week,  and  reports  the  re- 
sult of  his  observations  in  person  or  in  writing  to  the  Commaiider-in -Chief. 

Applications  for  officers  to  be  ordered  to  duty  at  the  school  are  made 
by  name  by  the  commandant  to  the  Commander-iu-Chief,  who  forwards 
them  to  the  Ministry  with  his  indorsement.  Lieutenants  are  thus  ordered 
as  inspecting  officers,  and  junior  officers  as  executive  officers  (aiutante), 
for  the  daily  routine  of  the  school. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  209 

The  two  inspecting  officers  remain  at  the  school  one  year,  and  may  be 
renominated  if  applied  for  ;  their  duty  is  to  superintend  the  inner  work- 
ing of  the  school,  but  more  particularly  to  watch  over  the  discipline  and 
conduct  of  the  cadets  and  to  supervise  their  practical  and  military  in- 
struction ;  they  are  on  duty  during  alternate  weeks.  During  his  tour 
of  duty,  the  inspecting  officer  receives  every  morning  the  reports  of  the 
professors  and  of  the  janitor,  and  makes  a  r6sum6  of  whatever  has  hap- 
pened, which  he  presents  to  the  commandant ;  he  is  present  at  prayers, 
at  the  inspection  of  rooms,  at  meals,  and  at  all  exercises,  including 
swimming;  and  he  may  inflict  punishments,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  commandant. 

Subject  to  the  authority  of  the  superior  council,  of  which  he  is  a  mem- 
ber, the  director  of  studies  has  oversight  of  everything  relating  to  the 
theoretical  instruction  of  the  cadets  and  carries  out  the  regulations  of 
the  superior  council;  and  the  orders  of  the 'commandant  are  transmitted 
by  him  to  the  professors. 

A  few  days  before  the  opening  of  the  school  he  receives  from  the  pro- 
fessors a  programme  of  the  studies  intrusted  to  each  one,  with  modifi- 
cations suggested  by  the  previous  year's  course  of  study,  and  with  a  pro- 
posed list  of  text-books.  These  propositions  are  discussed  separately 
and  collectively  in  the  superior  council,  to  which  the  director  of  studies 
makes  a  report  on  the  programme.  He  is  also  charged  with  the  exe- 
cution of  the  details  of  the  course  of  instruction,  the  supervision  of  the 
methods  pursued  by  instructors,  and  the  progress  made  by  the  cadets. 
He  receives  from  the  instructors  monthly  reports,  which  form  in  part 
the  basis  of  the  monthly  reports  011  the  school;  and  he  prepares  the 
materials  for  the  annual  report,  transmitted  by  the  superior  council,  on 
the  condition  and  working  of  the  school. 

The  professors  and  tutors  are  answerable  to  the  commandant,  but 
receive  orders  relative  to  discipline  from  the  inspecting  officers  and  those 
relating  to  instruction  from  the  director  of  studies. 

Monthly  marks  are  given  by  the  professors  for  the  work  done  by  the 
students  as  shown  in  recitations  and  exercises;  these  marks,  like  all 
others,  are  on  a  scale  of  10.  Monthly  reports  are  sent  to  the  inspect- 
ing officer,  containing  the  marks,  together  with  statements  of  conduct 
(in  recitation-rooms),  diligence,  and  progress  of  the  students.  A  gen- 
eral merit-roll  is  made  up  from  the  marks  given,  multiplied  by  the  pre- 
scribed coefficients,  and  this  roll  is  published  each  month  at  the  school. 
A  special  report  of  the  conduct,  progress,  and  diligence  of  each  student 
is  sent  to  his  parents. 

The  following  list  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  studies  in  the  course 
of  theoretical  instruction,  with  the  coefficient  of  each  branch  : 

First  year  at  Naples : 

Coefficient 

Algebra 3 

Plane  and  spherical  trigonometry  ;  navigation 3 

Analytical  geometry;  descriptive  geometry 3 

S.  Ex.  51 14 


210  NAVAL    EDUCATION ITALY. 

Coefficient. 

Italian  literature 2 

Geography i 2 

French 2 

Drawing 1 

Second  year  at  Naples : 

Calculus 3 

Experimental  physics;  elementary  chemistry 3 

Political  geography 2 

Italian  literature 2 

French 2 

English 2 

Drawing 1 

Third  year  at  Genoa  : 

Elementary  mechanics 3 

Nautical  astronomy 3 

Nautical  surveying 3 

History - 2 

Political  geography 2 

Italian  literature 2 

French  language  and  literature 2 

English 2 

Complementary  course  at  Genoa  : 

Applied  mathematics  :  theory  of  ship  construction 3 

Naval  construction 2 

Naval  tactics .. 2 

Fortification  and  military  art 2 

Gunnery 2 

Modern  history 2 

Italian  literature 2 

English 2 

Complementary  course  ;  final  practice  cruise  : 

Naval  maneuvers -... 2 

Steam-engineering 1 

Practical  navigation 2 

Description  and  use  of  naval  ordnance 1 

Regulations  for  service  on  shipboard 1 

Maritime  laws  and  responsibilities 1 

Hydrographic  surveys 1 

During  all  the  school  sessions  practical  instruction  is  given  every 
week  in  the  following  branches,  alternate  days  being  taken : 

Rigging  ship,  exercise  with  sails  and  spars 2 

Ship-building  in  the  dockyard 1 

Great  guns v. 1 

Small-arms 1 

Fencing,  gymnastics,   swimming. 

All  but  the  last  are  subjects  of  the  annual  examination.    First  year 
students  have  also  exercises  in  penmanship.    In  addition  to  the  above 

exercises,  which  take  place  on  week  days,  students  have  regularly  on 

Sundays  lessons  in  fencing  and  dancing,  and  occasional  exercises  in 
great  guns,  small-arms,  and  gymnastics. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  211 

In  the  two  upper  classes  a  weekly  lecture  of  a  familiar  character  is 
given  by  the  professor  of  history  on  subjects  connected  with  social  and 
political  matters,  and  the  relations  of  officers  to  society  and  to  the  State. 
These  lectures  are  largely  attended  by  the  officers  of  the  station.  * 

Each  school  is  provided  with  a  library,  physical  and  chemical  labora- 
tories, an  observatory,  and  a  collection  of  astronomical  and  geodetical 
instruments.  The  library  is  used  by  students  as  well  as  officers,  and  is 
under  the  direction  of  a  professor.  The  professional  apparatus  apper- 
taining directly  to  the  schools  is  not  so  extensive  as  the  necessities  of  the 
case  would  seem  to  warrant,  though  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
dockyards  supplies  these  deficiencies  to  a  limited  extent.  A  mast  and 
bowsprit,  fully  rigged  and  sparred,  are  set  up  in  one  of  the  court-yards, 
and  are  used  for  exercises  in  seamanship. 

The  course  outlined  above  requires  some  further  observations.  As 
usual,  a  large  part  of  the  time  at  disposal  is  given  to  mathematics.  The 
examination  for  admission  is  of  a  sufficiently  high  character  to  do  away 
with  the  necessity  of  much  elementary  work.  Accordingly,  the  first 
year's  course  in  algebra  is  extensive,  going  thoroughly  into  the  theory 
of  equations.  The  students  in  this  year  also  go  through  plane  and 
spherical  trigonometry  and  a  simple  course  in  plane  sailing. .  The  ana- 
lytical geometry,  plane  and  solid,  is  a  reasonably  high  course,  while  that 
in  descriptive  geometry  is  comparatively  simple.  In  the  second  year, 
mathematical  instruction  is  confined  to  the  differential  and  integral  cal- 
culus. The  course  is  extensive,  going  largely  into  differential  equatious, 
but  it  is  too  exclusively  theoretical,  and  contains  much  that  is  of  little 
practical  value.  Judged  by  the  standards  of  instruction  of  the  present 
day,  it  would  be  considered  somewhat  antiquated.  The  third  year  con- 
tains a  full  course  in  analytical  mechanics,  including  statics,  dynamics^ 
and  kinematics.  This  year  also  includes  the  whole  of  navigation  and 
nautical  astronomy,  aifd  a  complete  course  in  hydrography  and  topog- 
raphy. The  course  in  applied  mathematics  of  the  fourth  year  consists 
of  an  exhaustive  treatment  of  what  is  generally  called  naval  architecture. 

The  course  in  physics  and  chemistry  of  the  second  year  calls  for  no- 
special  comment ;  the  former  includes  heat,  light,  sound,  electricity,  and 
magnetism ;  the  latter  is  a  simple  course  of  a  descriptive  character  ia 
inorganic  chemistry. 

The  important  professional  subjects  are  chiefly  reserved  for  the  fourth 
year ;  these  include,  in  addition  to  the  mathematical  treatment  of  naval 
architecture,  already  referred  to,  the  subjects  of  ship-building ;  naval 
tactics  under  sail  and  steam ;  fortification  and  the  military  art,  including 
field  and  permanent  fortification,  organization  of  the  Italian  and  foreign 
armies,  and  military  tactics ;  gunnery,  including  guns  of  all  modern  sys- 
tems, projectiles,  carriages,  powder,  fabrication  of  guns  and  ammunition, 
and  torpedqes. 

Under  the  name  of  Italian  literature  several  subjects  are  included.  The 
course  for  the  first  year  consists  of  rketoric  and  exercises  in  various 


212  NAVAL    EDUCATION ITALY. 

kinds  of  composition.  In  the  second  year  the  rhetoric  and  composition 
are  continued  with  the  addition  of  a  course  in  general  literary  criticism, 
treating  of  different  branches  of  literature,  and  including  history,  travels, 
fiction,  and  poetry.  The  third  year's  course  takes  up  in  detail  the  lead- 
ing Italian  authors  from  the  early  development  of  the  language  to  the 
present  century — from  Cavalcanti  to  Manzoni  and  d'Azeglio — and  in- 
cludes a  special  study  of  Dante.  In  the  fourth  year  the  subject  proper 
of  Italian  literature  is  dropped,  and  international  law  takes  its  place. 
This  last  subject  is  treated  in  its  most  modern  aspect,  in  the  light  of  the 
most  recent  cases.  In  this  last  year  there  is  also  some  practice  in  writ- 
ing compositions  on  literary  subjects. 

Instruction  in  French  is  given  during  the  first  three  years,  in  English 
during  the  last  three ;  in  both,  instruction  is  thorough  as  far  as  it  goes, 
though  not  so  successful  as  in  Germany.  It  includes  grammar,  writing 
letters  and  exercises,  conversation,  and  translating  from  and  into  Italian. 
In  English  one  of  the  text-books  is  Irving's  Life  of  Ooluinbus. 

The  course  in  history  which  has  a  place  in  the  two  final  years  is  very 
thorough.  It  begins  with  mediaeval  history,  extending  to  the  crusades. 
In  the  last  year  the  whole  of  European  history,  especially  Italian,  is  gone 
over  from  the  thirteenth  century  down  to  the  present  time.  The  later 
courses  in  geography  consist  largely  of  historical  study,  and  form  the 
complement  of  the  historical  course.  Under  the  name  of  political  geog- 
raphy the  course  includes  the  study  of  comparative  politics,  and  the 
territorial  and  diplomatic  relations  *of  states.  The  first  year's  course  in 
geography  is  merely  descriptive. 

The  theoretical  course  of  instruction  receives  its  practical  application  in 
the  annual  practice-cruises.  These  cruises  are  five  in  number,  the  first 
four  of  three  and  a  half  months  each,  and  the  last  of  six  months,  making 
in  all  nearly  two  years  of  training  on  shipboad.  The  training  is  not 
confined  to  practical  exercises,  though  the  latter  occupy  the  important 
place.  Eegular  instruction  is  given  in  navigation,  gunnery,  and  seaman- 
ship during  all  the  cruises ;  in  naval  tactics  during  the  last  three ;  in 
ship-building  during  the  last  two  ;  and  in  official  regulations  and  steam- 
engineering  in  the  complementary  course.  All  this  represents  an  essen- 
tial and  very  important  part  of  the  instruction  given  in  the  Italian  scheme 
of  education.  Its  most  marked  defect  is  the  postponement  of  all  instruc- 
tion iti  steam-engineering  to  the  close  of  the  course,  and  the  inadequate 
provision  of  time  for  carrying  it  on  by  relegating  it  to  a  part  of  the  final 
practice-cruise. 

Examinations  are  held  every  year  at  the  end  of  the  academic  session. 
The  board  of  examiners  at  Naples  consists  of  professors  designated  by 
the  superior  council.  At  Genoa,  the  board  is  a  mixed  commission,  com- 
posed of  the  following  persons  : 

The  commandant  as  president. 

One  superior  officer,  junior  to  the  commandant,  and  one  lieutenant;  both  designated 
by  the  commandant. 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  213 

One  professor,  charged  with  instruction  in  the  branch  which  is  the  subject  of  exami- 

ation. 
One  other  professor,  named  by  the  superior  council. 

The  boards  receive  from  the  commandants  of  the  two  schools  a  report 
on  the  ability,  application,  and  conduct  of  the  students  during  the  past 
year,  which  is  read  aloud  as  each  candidate  comes  up.  The  examina- 
tion is  chiefly  oral,  and  may  therefore  be  materially  different  for  different 
students. 

Two  subjects  selected  from  the  programme  in  each  branch  of  study 
are  given  to  each  student,  and  he  is  allowed  to  take  his  choice.  Any  one 
of  the  examiners  may  add  such  questions  as  he  sees  fit  on  any  part  of 
the  established  programme.  After  the  examination  of  each  candidate, 
the  board  decides  by  ballot  whether  he  can  pass  or  not,  and  he  is  then 
marked ;  60  per  cent,  being  fixed  as  the  passing  standard  for  the  general 
result. 

The  order  of  the  subjects  for  examination  is,  first,  scientific  or  profes- 
sional subjects ',  second,  literary;  and,  third,  practical  subjects.  If  the 
candidate  gets  below  60  per  cent,  in  any  one  of  the  scientific  subjects,  or 
if  his  average  in  literary  subjects  is  below  60  per  cent.,  his  examination 
is  closed  and  he  has  failed  to  pass.  If  he  receives  less  than  60  per  cent, 
as  his  average  in  the  practical  subjects,  he  fails  likewise.  As  in  the 
German  system,  the  only  coefficients  for  different  subjects  are  3,  2,  and  1. 
In  general  the  scientific  subjects  have  the  largest  coefficient,  the  pro- 
fessional and  literary  the  next,  while  the  smallest  coefficient  is  given 
to  drawing  and  certain  practical  exercises ;  but,  in  any  case,  the  differ- 
ences in  relative  weight  are  not  excessive. 

Deficient  students  may  be  turned  back  once,  but  never  twice.  A 
second  failure  inevitably  results  in  dismissal.  Bad  conduct  Is  also  a 
cause  of  dismissal.  If  a  student  develops,  during  his  stay  at  the  school, 
some  physical  defect  which  unfits  him  for  active  service,  but  otherwise 
makes  satisfactory  progress,  he  may  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  be  ap- 
pointed to  some  other  branch  of  the  naval  service. 

On  passing  the  final  examination  at  the  close  of  the  complementary 
course,  students  are  admitted  to  the  Navy  with  the  rank  of  midshipman 
(guardia  marina).  Further  examinations  are  held  for  promotion  from 
the  grade  of  midshipman  to  that  of  sub-lieutenant,  and  from  sub-lieu- 
tenant to  lieutenant.  Candidates  for  promotion  to  sub-lieutenant  (sotto 
tenente  di  vascello)  are  examined  in  practical  navigation,  seamanship^ 
naval  tactics,  official  duties,  including  regulations,  correspondence,  re- 
ports, charge  of  men,  &c.,  ordnance  and  gunnery,  and  steam-engineer- 
ing ;  the  latter  only  a  general  examination.  The  last  examination,  for 
promotion  to  lieutenant  (luogo  tenente  di  vascello),  includes  seamanship 
naval  tactics,  steam-engineering,  ship-building,  ordnance,  and  gunnery. 
These  examinations  are  progressive  in  character ;  the  last  being  exceed- 
ingly searching  in  its  requirements  of  the  prescribed  subjects. 

Students  of  high  merit  at  the  schools  are  selected  as  chiefs  of  divisions 


214  NAVAL    EDUCATION ITALY. 

(contro-maestr-i)  and  chiefs  of  classes  (quartier-maestri},  each  class  being 
composed  of  students  of  a  given  year.  There  are,  therefore,  in  all,  two 
chiefs  of  divisions  and  five  chiefs  of  classes.  They  have  some  slight 
privileges  and  wear  distinctive  badges.  At  all  formations,  by  class  or 
division,  they  give  orders,  call  the  roll,  and  report  absentees  to  the  ad- 
jutant on  duty.  They  have  military  authority  over  their  respective 
divisions  and  classes,  and  they  are  responsible  for  ordei  at  studies,  ex- 
ercises, and  recreation.  Every  morning  they  make  a  report  of  offenses 
coming  under  their  cognizance  during  the  last  twenty -four  hours.  The 
senior  chief  of  division,  in  the  absence  of  superior  officers,  has  authority 
to  order  the  arrest  of  a  student ;  chiefs  of  division  are  in  charge  at 
breakfast  and  dinner,  superintend  the  distribution  of  provisions,  and 
instruct  the  steward  as  to  withholding  certain  dishes  from  students  un- 
der punishment. 

There  are  play-rooms  and  a  billiard  hall,  the  last  only  for  the  upper 
division.  The  students  are  divided  into  five  or  six  parties,  and  use  the 
billiard  hall  on  alternate  evenings. 

Students  are  allowed  to  receive  visitors  only  on  certain  days  of  the 
week  in  the  reception-room.  The  only  visitors  they  are  allowed  to  see 
are  their  parents,  or  near  relatives,  or  a  designated  agent  of  the  parents. 
Permission  to  leave  the  school  inclosure  is  only  granted  to  the  higher 
classes  every  Sunday,  and  to  the  three  lower  classes  on  alternate  Sun- 
days. The  leave  extends  from  1.30  to  8  p.  m.  in  the  fall  and  winter,  and 
to  9  p.  m.  in  the  spring  and  summer.  There  are  seven  holidays  during 
the  year,  chiefly  religious  festivals,  upon  which  days  the  leave  begins  at 
10  a.  m.  This  permission  is  only  given  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the 
parents  or  guardians  of  the  students ;  if  they  do  not  reside  in  the  city, 
they  designate  a  suitable  person,  who  must  be  the  head  of  a  family,  to 
take  their  place.  In  either  case,  the  person  whom  the  student  is  author- 
ized tovisit  must  accompany  him  to  and  from  the  school ;  the  students 
arejMder  no  circumstances  allowed  to  go  alone  through  the  streets. 
If  parents  living  at  a  distance  come  to  to"wn  for  a  short  time,  in  which 
no  liberty-day  happens  to  fall,  their  son  may  take  one  day's  liberty  dur- 
ing their  visit,  but  he  makes  up  for  it  at  the  next  regular  holiday.  Leave 
of  absence  to  visit  their  families  is  given  to  meritorious  students  during 
the  short  period  intervening  between  the  annual  examination  and  the 
practice-cruise. 

The  restraints  imposed  in  general  by  discipline  are  more  severe  at  the 
Italian  Naval  School  than  at  similar  institutions  in  most  other  states.  As 
in  France,  the  students  have  no  standing  as  officers ;  they  are  designated 
simply  pupils  (allievi);  and  the  regulations  for  their  government  are 
based  on  an  extreme  form  of  this  theory.  This  must  be  kept  in  mind, 
as  the  only  explanation  of  a  system  which  subjects  a  body  of  lads, 
whose  average  age  at  the  start  is  fifteen  or  sixteen  years,  not  only  to  ex- 
treme care  and  minute  attention,  but  to  discipline  and  restrictions  that 
seem  only  suitable  for  young  children.  The  scale  of  punishments,  how- 


THE    NAVAL    SCHOOL.  215 

ever,  does  not  wholly  bear  out  this  view;  it  ranges  from  the  extreme  of 
pettiness  to  the  extreme  of  severity ;  from  deprivation  of  dessert  at  din- 
ner to  thirty  days'  solitary  confinement  on  bread  and  water.  In  regard 
to  the  latter  penalty,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  it  is  rarely  inflicted ;  but 
even  so,  a  young  man  whose  offenses  were  such  as  to  warrant  this  pun- 
ishment could  hardly  be  fit  to  continue  at  the  school  or  in  the  service. 
It  is  probable  that  in  the  near  future  considerable  modifications  may 
be  made  in  the  system  of  naval  education  in  Italy.  The  national  navy 
is  yet  in  its  infancy,  having  been  less  than  twenty  years  in  existence. 
During  this  time  it  has  made  immense  progress,  and  there  are  growing 
signs  of  a  spirit  of  reform,  which  must  soon  be  felt  in  naval  education.* 

*  Since  the  above  was  "written,  information  has  been  received  of  an  important  change 
in  the  organization  of  the  Naval  School  by  the  addition  of  a  fifth  year  to  the  course. 
As  it  now  stands,  the  first  three  years  of  the  course  are  passed  at  Naples,  and  the  last 
two  at  Genoa.  The  number  of  pupils  is  as  follows : 

Naples :  Pupils. 

First  year 38 

Second  year 16 

Third  year 11 

Genoa: 

Fourth  year „ 22 

Fifth  year 28 

A  parliamentary  commission  has  also  recently  made  a  report,  recommending  the 
union  of  the  schools,  and  the  establishment  of  the  new  school  at  Leghorn,  the  selec- 
tion being  partly  based  on  the  fact  that  Leghorn  is  not  one  of  the  great  naval  ports. 


CHAPTEE  XXXI. 

THE  GUNNERY  SCHOOL  (Regia  nave-scuola  di  artigleria  navale). 

The  gunnery  school  was  established  by  a  royal  decree  of  April  2, 
1873.  It  is  placed  on  board  the  screw  frigate  Maria  Adelaide,  perma- 
nently stationed  at  Spezia.  Attached  to  the  school  are  a  gun-boat  for 
target  practice  in  motion,  and  a  small  steamer  for  auxiliary  purposes. 
The  establishment  is  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  Ministry  of 
Marine  in  all  matters  relating  to  instruction,  exercises,  and  the  special 
gunnery  service ;  in  other  respects  it  is  subject  to  the  authority  of  the 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  first  maritime  department. 

Thepersonnel  of  the  school  includes  the  following  officers,  instructors? 
students,  &c. : 

Captain 1 

Commander 1 

Lieutenants 6 

Sub-lieutenants. 8 

Midshipmen  (the  number  regulated  each  year  by  the  Ministry). 
Commissaries  and  surgeons. 

Seamen  (12  as  servants) 60 

Seamen  as  gunnery  pupils • 360 

Petty  officers,  pilotage  class -. 11 

Gunners 13 

Gunnery  corporals < 24 

Seamen  gunners 28 

Machinists 3 

Stokers 12 

Clerks 10 

Artificers 12 

Draughtsmen  as  required  from  time  to  time. 

The  captain  and  commander  of  the  ship,  with  one  of  the  lieutenants 
as  recorder,  form  a  board  (oonsigUo),  which  regulates  the  course,  and 
introduces  all  the  necessary  modifications. 

'  The  ordinary  executive  duty  of  the  ship  is  performed  by  the  senior 
lieutenant,  acting  under  the  commander,  while  the  latter  gives  his 
personal  attention  to  the  school  instruction  and  to  the  school  exer- 
cises. The  lieutenant  who  acts  as  recorder  of  the  board  has  special 
charge  of  the  instruction  of  the  officers'  class.  The  work  of  the  other  lieu, 
tenants  is  divided  between  routine  duties  and  duties  of  instruction,  in  the 
216 


THE  GUNNERY  SCHOOL.  217 

first  as  officers  of  the  watch,  and  in  the  second  as  officers  of  divisions. 
The  whole  personnel  of  the  ship,  exclusive  of  commissioned  officers,  is 
arranged  in  six  divisions,  with  a  lieutenant  in  charge  of  each.  Of  the 
eight  sub-lieutenants,  four  assist  in  instruction  and  four  in  routine  duties. 

The  gunners  and  gunnery  corporals  are  selected  as  the  best  in  then- 
grade  in  the  final  course  of  each  year ;  they  act  as  instructors  and  sub- 
instructors  of  the  class  of  seamen.  The  seamen  gunners  are  also  picked 
men,  the  best  in  the  ordinary  course,  and  during  their  stay  at  the  school 
they  act  as  assistant  instructors.  All  of  these  commissioned,  warrant, 
and  petty  officers  who  serve  as  instructors  at  the  school  have  special 
advantages  in  the  way  of  promotion  and  of  detail  for  duty. 

Two  courses  of  instruction  are  carried  out  on  board  the  Maria  Ade- 
laide ;  the  ordinary  course,  and  the  final  course  of  application.  The  first 
is  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  certain  number  of  men' eligible  as  sea- 
men gunners.  The  second  course  is  to  perfect  the  practical  training  in 
naval  gunnery  of  officers,  midshipmen,  and  seamen  gunners,  not  only 
to  enable  them  to  pass  the  required  examination  for  promotion,  but  to 
fit  them  for  duty  as  instructors  at  the  school  itself. 

I. — THE   ORDINARY  COURSE. 

Men  pursuing  the  ordinary  course  are  known  as  gunnery  pupils.  They 
are  selected  from  among  the  seamen  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  fleet* 
those  being  preferred  who  apply  voluntarily,  and  who  can  read  and 
write.  They  must  be  active  men,  of  quick  intelligence,  and  robust  con- 
stitution, with  unimpaired  eyesight,  and  not  less  than  4  feet  9  inches  in 
height.  They  are  also  required  to  have  completed  three  years  of  active 
service.  If  any  men  admitted  as  gunnery  pupils  appear  to  the  captain 
of  the  ship  unfit  for  gunners,  he  has  authority  to  send  them  back  to 
their  divisions ;  with  this  view,  10  per  cent,  more  than  the  required  num- 
ber are  attached  to  the  ship  at  the  beginning  of  the  course. 

The  course  of  instruction  lasts  eight  months,  and  is  both  practical  and 
theoretical.  The  first  embraces  those  parts  of  the  1st  and  2d  volumes 
of  the  "  Military  Instructions  for  the  Royal  Navy"  included  in  their  pro- 
gramme, and  also  target  practice  with  great  guns,  rifles,  and  revolvers. 
The  second  embraces  the  programme  contained  in  the  3d  volume  of  the 
Military  Instructions,  and  is  limited  to  general  descriptions  and  informa- 
tion. 

The  course  comprises  three  periods,  as  follows : 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

Practice. — School  of  the  soldier  without  arms;  manual  of  the  rifle,  loading  and  firing; 

school  of  the  company  and  of  the  battalion ;  great-gun  drill ;  sabre  exercise. 
Theory. — Nomenclature  and  general  descriptions  of  guns,  carriages,  equipments,  and 

small-arms. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 

Practice. — Exercise  at  will  with  great  guns,  sponging  and  loading;  school  of  the  bat- 
tery ;  target  practice  at  anchor ;  school  of  the  platoon  and  company ;  skirmish 
drills ;  small-arm  target  practice. 


218 


NAVAL    EDUCATION ITALY. 


y.— General  observations  iu  regard  to  drills;  description  and  use  of  projectiles, 
charges,  and  fuses ;  pointing  with  director. 

THIRD  PERIOD.  • 

Practice. — General  exercise  of  combat ;  target  firing  in  motion;  school  of  the  maga- 
zine, of  the  piece,  division,  and  battery ;  boat  guns  and  landing  parties ;  target  prac- 
tice with  revolvers ;  general  review. 

Theory. — Pyrotechny,  and  the  service  construction,  &c.,  of  magazines;  deviations 
in  the  flight  of  projectiles;  boat-gun  carriages ;  general  review. 

Practical  and  theoretical  instruction  is  given  by  divisions.  One  divis- 
ion of  the  six  is  always  engaged  in  duties  connected  with  the  ship's 
routine,  during  which  the  guard  receives  instruction  in  the  duties  of  sen- 
tinels from  the  sub-lieutenant  of  the  division.  The  other  five  divisions 
have  instruction  for  5|  hours  daily,  except  on  holidays,  and  on  Thurs- 
day, which  is  occupied  in  cleaning  ship.  In  the  afternoon  hour  in  sum- 
mer the  divisions  are  exercised  in  rowing  and  swimming. 

Each  series  of  students  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  period  must 
make  five  hits  with  the  following  pieces :  3  with  6.25-inch  rifle  and  2 
with  32-pounder  smooth-bore.  In  the  school  of  the  platoon,  each  man 
must  make  five  bull's-eyes  with  the  rifle. 

Table  of  firings. 


Projectiles. 

Period. 

Manner. 

Number  of  shots  to  each 
man. 

Weapon. 

Empty  shell  

2 

10-inch  M.  L.  R. 

Do  .. 

3 

8-inch  M.  L.  R. 

Do  

2 

2  

6  25-inch  R. 

Solid  shot  

2 

do    

2     

32-pounder  S.  B. 

4  empty  shells;   1 

3 

Gunboat  in  motion  

6  

4-inch  R.  or  32-pdr. 

loaded   shell  ;    1 
grape. 
Empty  shell 

3 

3 

S.B. 

2 

shore. 

5  with  arms  extended  ;  5 

Rifle. 

3 

with  a  rest;  5  'kneel- 
ing ;  5  lying  down. 
6.  

Revolver 

3 

1      ...                     

Rocket. 

- 

Prizes  are  given  for  excellence  in  firing. 

The  commandant  makes  weekly  reports  of  the  condition  of  the  school 
to  the  Ministry.  At  the  end  of  each  period,  lieutenants  in  command  of 
divisions  mate  reports  of  the  progress  of  each  man  in  their  divisions, 
giving  him  separate  marks  on  his  practical  and  theoretical  work  and  a 
final  mark  based  on  the  separate  marks ;  these  marks,  like  those  at  the 
Naval  School,  are  on  a  scale  of  10.  At  the  close  of  the  course,  lieutenants 
of  divisions  send  in  a  final  report,  taking  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the 
marks  for  the  three  periods.  Men  receiving  a  final  mark  between  8  and 
10  are  said  to  be  approved  for  the  first  class  (approvati  per  la  la  classa) ; 
those  whose  final  mark  is  between  6  and  8  are  approved  for  the  second 
class.  Men  whose  final  mark  is  below  6  are  considered  not  qualified 
for  advancement,  and  are  required  to  go  over  the  course  anew. 

Successful  pupils  receive  a  certificate  of  fitness  according  to  their 


THE  GUNNERY  SCHOOL.  219 

class  and  are  returned  to  their  respective  divisions,  when  they  are  imme- 
diately appointed  seamen -gunners.  About  300  a  year  are  sent  out  in 
this  way  into  the  service ;  the  30  best  men  are  retained  at  the  school 
and  put  through  the  final  course.  In  case  of  bad  conduct,  the  graduates 
are  returned  in  the  same  way  to  their  divisions,  but  their  advancement 
is  withheld  until  they  have  received  a  good-conduct  certificate  from  a 
commanding  officer. 

II. — THE  FINAL  COURSE   OF  APPLICATION. 

yon-commissioned  officers. — The  following  non-commissioned  officers 
form  the  class  in  the  final  course. 

I.  The  30  gunnery  pupils  selected  as  the  best  at  the  close  of  the  final 
course. 

II.  All  the  seamen -gunners  not  employed  in  the  different  divisions. 

III.  The  gunnery  corporals  sent  up  from  the  divisions  who  have  not 
yet  passed  the  final  course  in  their  grade;  the  number  being  fixed  each 
year  by  the  Ministry  of  Marine. 

No  one  can  be  admitted  to  this  course  who  ha«  less  than  a  year  to 
complete  of  his  term  of  enlistment,  unless  he  has  engaged  to  renew  it ; 
nor  can  any  subordinate  officers  be  admitted  who  have  already  passed 
through  the  course  in  their  grade  and  have  passed  their  examination  for 
promotion.  The  course  lasts  three  months  and  follows  immediately  the 
close  of  the  ordinary  course. 

The  seamen-gunners  complete  their  practical  instruction,  and  pursue 
a  theoretical  course  to  fit  them  for  examination  for  the  grade  of  gunnery 
corporal.  The  gunnery  corporals  are  practiced  in  the  use  of  guns  and 
small-arms,  in  the  school  of  command,  and  are  fitted  by  their  theoretical 
course  for  the  examinations  for  promotion. 

The  captain  assigns  one  or  more  instructors  to  duty  with  each  class 
according  to  the  necessities  of  the  case,  and  two  sword  masters  are 
added  to  the  staff  of  the  school  during  this  period  for  instruction  in 
fencing. 

Table  of  firings  performed  ly  all  students  in  the  final  course. 


Projectiles. 

• 

Manner. 

Nnmber  of  shots 
per  man. 

Weapon. 

Empty  shell  

In  motion 

1  to  every  5  men 

10-in.  and  8-in.  M.  L.  R. 

Do  
Do  

At  anchor  
In  motion 

1  

6.25-in.  R. 
4-in.  R.  or  32-pdr.  S.  B. 

5  

Rifle. 

6  

Revolver. 

Rocket. 

At  the  close  of  the  final  course  all  those  who  apply  are  examined  for  • 
promotion  to  the  higher  grades.    The  examination  is  conducted  by  the 
board  of  instruction,  which  is  augmented  for  the  purpose  by  the  officers 
who  have  taken  part  in  the  instruction.    Certificates  of  fitness  are  given 
to  the  successful  candidates,  and  from  them  the  captain  selects  instruct- 


220  NAVAL    EDUCATION ITALY. 

ors  for  the  next  ordinary  course.  The  rest  are  sent  back  to  their  divis- 
ions. 

Commissioned  officers. — Sub-lieutenants  and  midshipmen  are  sent  in 
turn  to  pursue  the  final  course  at  the  gunnery  school.  The  course  of 
instruction  is  similar  to  the  final  course  for  non-commissioned  officers 
in  its  principal  details,  notably  in  the  firings.  The  course  in  naval 
ordnance  is  conducted  by  the  lieutenant  designated  for  the  purpose  (the 
recorder  of  the  board  of  instruction),  and  it  deals  chiefly  with  the  recent 
improvements  in  the  science.  The  students  attend  the  experiments 
taking  place  in  the  polygon  on  shore,  and  they  take  part  in  the  practice- 
drills,  and  are  specially  exercised  in  the  school  of  command.  A  course 
in  fortification  and  military  art  is  carried  on  by  a  lieutenant  of  by  an 
officer  of  engineers. 

At  the  close  of  the  course,  detailed  reports  of  the  progress  of  each 
student  are  made  by  the  instructors  to  the  captain,  and  by  the  captain 
to  the  Minister  of  Marine.  The  general  system  is  largely  founded  on  that 
of  the  Excellent. 


CHAPTEE    XXXII. 
THE  TORPEDO  SCHOOL. 

The  torpedo  school,  in  its  present  form,  is  of  very  recent  date.  At  first 
the  study  and  working  of  torpedoes,  as  in  England,  were  confined  to  the 
gunnery  officers ;  but  in  1874  a  separate  torpedo  corps  was  established, 
with  grades  of  petty  officers  corresponding  to  those  of  the  gunnery  corps, 
as  follows : 


GUNNERY  CORPS. 


Chief  gunner. 
Second  chief  gunner. 
Gunnery  corporal. 
Seaman  gunner,  first  class. 
Seaman  gunner,  second  class. 


TORPEDO  CORPS. 


Second  chief  torpedo  officer. 
Torpedo  corporal. 
Torpedo  seaman,  first  class. 
Torpedo  seaman,  second  class. 


The  number  of  petty  officers  in  the  torpedo  corps  is  limited  to  60  iu 
the  highest  grade,  100  in  the  second,  and  180  in  each  of  the  two  lower 
grades.  There  is  no  grade  in  this  corps  corresponding  to  that  of  chief 
gunner,  but  the  highest  grade  of  torpedo  officers  may  compete  for  pro- 
motion to  the  grade  of  chief  gunner ;  the  number  selected  from  the  two 
corps  being  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  number  of  individuals  in  the 
second  grade.  To  obtain  the  promotion,  however,  torpedo  officers  must 
pass  through  the  final  course  at  the  gunnery  school,  and  obtain  the  cer- 
tificate of  fitness . 

The  torpedo  school  is  established  on  board  the  screw  corvette  Carac- 
ciolo,  and  its  object  is  to  fit  men  for  the  various  grades  of  the  torpedo 
corps,  and  also  to  give  officers  such  training  as  may  be  necessary.  The 
organization  is  similar  to  that  of  the  gunnery  school-ship.  The  officers 
are  a  captain,  4  lieutenants,  4  sub-lieutenants,  4  midshipmen,  and  the 
usual  staff  officers.  A  large  number  of  skilled  artificers  is  attached  to 
the  ship  in  addition  to  its  ordinary  complement  of  machinists,  firemen, 
and  seamen. 

As  in  the  gunnery  school,  there  are  two  distinct  courses — the  ordinary 
course  and  the  final  course.  The  first  prepares  seamen  for  the  lowest 
grade  of  torpedo  seamen.  During  the  course  they  are  known  as  torpedo 
pupils  (allievi  torpedinieri).  The  final  course  is  a  shorter  and  higher 
course  for  junior  officers  and  for  the  higher  grades  of  the  torpedo  corps 
and  also  to  give  preparation  for  the  examinations  for  promotion.  The 
torpedo  pupils  are  taken  from  the  school  for  apprentices  (mozzi),  from 
unlisted  men,  and  from  men  obtained  by  the  maritime  inscription.  The 
regulations  governing  reports  and  certificates  are  similar  to  those  in  the 
gunnery  school. 
221 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

SCHOOL  FOR  ENGINEER  MECHANICIANS  (Scuola  degll  alUevi  macchinisti.) 

This  school  was  established  iu  1862  at  Genoa.  Iii  technical  matters 
and  matters  pertaining  to  instruction,  it  is  under  the  control  of  the 
director  of  naval  construction,  while  matters  of  discipline  are  regu- 
lated by  the  commander  of  the  division  of  seamen  of  the  first  maritime 
department.  The  immediate  head  of  the  establishment  is  a  director, 
selected  by  the  Ministry  of  Marine  either  from  the  corps  of  executive 
officers,  of  constructing  engineers,  or  of  mechanicians.  The  duty  of  the 
director  is  to  carry  out  the  established  programme,  to  maintain  disci- 
pline, to  assign  the  students  to  the  workshops,  and  to  call  meetings  of 
the  examining  boards  and  of  professors. 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  school  must  be  Italian  subjects,  of  not 
less  than  14  nor  more  than  17  years  of  age ;  they  must  pass  the  usual 
medical  examination,  and  a*  mental  examination  in  reading,  writing,  com- 
position, and  arithmetic.  They  must  also  have  served  an  apprenticeship 
to  a  founder,  boiler-maker,  metal-worker,  or  machinist,  and  must  give 
evidence  of  their  skill  by  work  done  at  the  naval  arsenal  in  presence  of 
the  examining  board. 

The  examination  for  admission  is  held  annually,  and  begins  on  the 
15th  of  September ;  it  is  held  successively  at  Genoa,  Naples,  and  Venice,, 
before  a  board  composed  of  an  engineer  officer  of  high  rank  as  president, 
a  lieutenant,  a  chief  mechanician,  and  two  professors  of  the  school.  It 
is  a  test-examination,  but  it  may  become  competitive  when  the  number 
of  those  who  pass  the  required  standard  is  greater  than  the  number  of 
vacancies.  Of  candidates  having  the  same  mark,  preference  is  given  (1) 
to  the  orphan  sons  of  persons  in  the  military  service ;  (2)  to  orphans 
generally ;  (3)  to  sons  of  persons  in  military  life  not  orphans. 

The  school  session  opens  on  the  15th  of  October.  The  successful  candi- 
dates must  report  within  fifteen  days  from  the  time  of  notification, 
otherwise  they  are  considered  to  have  forfeited  their  right  to  enter, 
unless  they  can  show  that  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  join  before.  At 
their  admission,  students  are  required  to  engage  that  they  will  remain 
in  the  service  until  the  age  of  twenty-nine  years ;  but  their  parents  may 
withdraw  them  at  any  time  before  they  have  reached  the  age  of  18  by 
indemnifying  the  government  for  all  expenses  incurred  on  their  account. 

222 


SCHOOL    FOR   ENGINEER-MECHANICIANS. 


223 


Students  who  fail  at  the  annual  examination  are  allowed  a  second  trial, 
but  never  a  third.  In  case  of  a  second  failure,  they  are  finally  dismissed. 
Students  whose  conduct  is  habitually  bad,  and  who  do  not  reform  under 
punishment,  are  expelled  from  the  corps  of  mechanicians,  and  placed  in 
that  of  stokers  or  coal-heavers,  where  they  are  obliged  to  perform  the 
duties  of  this  position  during  their  engagement. 

The  course  lasts  four  years,  and  is  arranged  according  to  the  following 
programme : 


Studies. 

l\To.  of  lessons 
per  week. 

£ 
a  .j 

ij 

<«£ 

°fc 
0  ft 
ft 

Coefficient. 

Arithmetic  and  algebra 

FIRST  YEAR. 

6 
5 
5 

6 
3 
5 

2 
4 
5 

4 
2 
5 
1 

12 
10 
5 

12 
6 
11 

4 
8 
15 

8 
4 
15 
2 

6 
5 
1 

6 
4 
5 

4 
6 
5 

8 
6 
5 
1 

Elementary  plane  and  soli 
Kudiments  of  physics  anc 

SECOND  YEAR. 

(1  geometry  

chemistry  

Elementary  mechanics   .  . 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Descriptive  geometry  and 

kinematics  

Steam-engines  

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Descriptive  geometry  and 

Political  geography    *.  .  .  . 

In  addition  to  the  above,  students  have  practical  work  in  the  shops 
for  5  hours  a  day  during  the  whole  course.  The  coefficient  for  shop- 
work  is  10.  In  the  first  three  years,  on  the  day  in  each  week  not  occu- 
pied with  drawing,  students  have  a  drill  at  great-guns  or  small-arms,  or 
an  exercise  in  composition. 

The  theoretical  course  occupies  nine  months  of  the  year,  but  the  shop- 
work  is  continued  throughout  the  year.  During  the  quarter  in  which 
studies  are  suspended  students  may  have  one  month's  leave,  unless  there 
is  some  special  reason  to  the  contrary. 

Monthly  marks  on  the  usual  scale  of  10  are  given  by  the  instructors 
in  all  branches,  including  shop- work,  and  reports  based  on  these  marks 
are  transmitted  to  the  Ministry  of  Marine.  The  monthly  marks  do  not, 
however,  appear  to  count  in  the  final  standing,  which  is  determined  by 
the  examinations  alone. 

The  examinations  are  held  at  the  end  of  the  year,  in  each  subject,  be- 
fore a  board  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  board  for  the  three  lower 
classes  is  composed  of  the  director  of  the  school  as  president,  of  the  pro- 
fessor of  the  subject  on  which  the  examination  turns,  of  another  profes- 
sor, of  a  chief  mechanician,  and  of  a  constructing  engineer.  The  board 


224  NAVAL    EDUCATION ITALY. 

for  examining  the  highest  class  is  composed  of  the  director  of  naval  con- 
struction as  president,  the  professor  whose  branch  is  the  subject  of  ex- 
amination,the  chief  of  the  section  of  machines,  a  constructing  engineer, 
and  a  lieutenant.  The  examinations  are  oral,  and  last  half  an  hour  for 
each  student  in  each  subject,  except  in  shop-work,  which  lasts  not  less 
than  two  hours.  Two  master-mechanics  are  added  to  the  board  for  this 
examination,  but  they  have  only  a  consulting  voice. 

In  order  to  pass  to  a  higher  class,  students  must  obtain  a  mark  of  6  on 
their  general  average,  as  well  as  in  the  separate  branches  of  shop-work 
(all  four  years),  arithmetic  and  algebra  (1),  geometry  (2),  mechanics  (3), 
and  steam-engines  (4).  The  sum  of  the  products  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing the  mark  in  each  branch  by  the  coefficient  of  the  branch  gives  the 
final  mark.  A  prize  of  50  lire  ($10)  is  given  to  the  students  who  pass 
first  in  the  different  classes.  Seven  professors  are  attached  to  the  school 
to  carry  on  the  course  of  instruction.  These  may  be  appointed  from 
civil  life,  or  may  be  taken  from  the  corps  of  constructing  engineers  or  of 
mechanicians;  in  the  latter  case  they  receive  a  considerable  accession  to 
their  pay  while  on  duty  at  the  school.  The  professors  meet  at  the  end 
of  each  academic  year  to  arrange  programmes  of  study  and  distribution 
of  time,  to  propose  changes  in  the  course,  and  to  make  reports  on  the 
working  of  the  school.  The  financial  management  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
council  of  administration  composed  of  the  officer  in  command  of  the 
first  division  as  president,  the  director  of  the  school,  a  mechanician  and 
a  staff  officer. 

Mechanician  pupils  receive  pay  at  the  rate  of  60  centesimi  (12  cents) 
per  diem  and  a  ration;  those  of  the  two  higher  classes  have  an  addition 
of  ten  cents  a  day  for  their  work  in  the  shops.  The  last  sum  may  be 
slightly  raised  or  diminished  according  to  the  quality  of  the  work.  An 
allowance  of  100  lire  ($20)  is  made  to  each  pupil  at  the  beginning  of  the 
course  for  outfit,  which  is  doubled  if  the  pupil  has'  reached  his  seven- 
teenth year.  The  pupils  are  regularly  attached  to  the  section  of  mechani- 
cians and  stokers  of  the  first  division  of  seamen. 

Executive  duty  in  the  school  is  performed  by  a  mechanician,  assisted 
by  four  petty  officers,  two  from  the  marine  infantry  and  two  from  the 
seamen's  division.  The  detailed  regulations  concerning  leave,  clothing, 
and  discipline  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Naval  School,  and  the  council 
of  administration  has  general  supervision  of  all  matters  connected  with 
the  school. 


APPENDIX 


S.  Ex.  51 15 


N  O  T  E  A. 
EXTRA  PAY  ALLOWED  TO  OFFICERS  BORNE  FOR  SPECIAL  DUTIES. 

NAVIGATING    OFFICERS. 

Per  diem. 

£.  8.  d. 

f        26 

Commander,  for  navigating  duties,  when  appointed  to  a  flagship ) 

(.  to  5  0 

Lieutenant : 2  6 

Lieutenant  of  live  years'  seniority 3  0 

Lieutenant  who  has  passed  for  first-class  ships 4  0 

Sub-lieutenant 2  6 

GUNNERY   OFFICERS. 

First-class  certificate  (Greenwich  and  Excellent) 3  6 

Second-class  certificate  (Greenwich  and  Excellent) 2  6 

Third-class  certificate  (Greenwich  and  Excellent) 1  6 

TORPEDO   OFFICERS. 

First-class  certificate  (Greenwich  and  Veruoii) •        3  6 

Second-class  certificate  (Greenwich  and  Vernon) 2  6 

INTERPRETERS. 

First-class  certificate  (R.  N.  C.) 2  6 

Second-class  certificate  (R.  N.  C.) 1  6 


228 


NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 


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229 


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230  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

NOTE  C. 

(Page  58.) 

PUNISHMENTS.— HER  MAJESTY'S  SHIP  BRITANNIA. 
SECOND  CLASS  FOR  CONDUCT. 

Wear  a  white  stripe  on  left  arm. 

Turn  out  one  hour  earlier  than  others,  anil  stand  on  middle  deck. 

Stand  apart  at  Sunday  morning  muster. 

One  hour's  drill  every  afternoon ;  leave  stopped  ;  march  out  one  hour  with  corporal. 

Stand  on  middle  deck  one  hour  after  evening  prayers ;  sit  at  second-class  table  in 
m,ess-room  at  meals;  not  iillowed  soup,  beer,  or  second  course;  pocket-money  to  be 
stopped. 

Sit  in  front  at  church  and  at  prayers  in  mess-room. 

Limit  of  punishment. — From  seven  to  fourteen  days. 

THIRD  CLASS  FOR  CONDUCT. 

Wear  a  white  stripe  on  each  arm. 

Get  up  at  6  a.  m.  in  winter  and  5  a.  m.  in  summer;  at  6.30  winter  and  5.30  sum- 
mer, fall  in  and  drill  until  prayer-time. 

Stand  apart  from  other  cadets  at  all  musters. 

One-and-a-quarter  hour's  drill  every  afternoon ;  leave  stopped  ;  march  out  one  hour 
with  corporal.  . 

Stand  on  middle  deck  half-an-Tiour  after  evening  prayers. 

Alternate  days  in  cell,  on  bread  and  water;  other  days  take  their  meals  at  cockpit 
mess;  not  allowed  soup,  beer,  or  second  course. 

Pocket-money  to  be  stopped. 

Sit  on  stool  on  half  deck  when  not  in  cell ;  sit  in  front  in  church  and  at  prayers  in 
mess-room. 

Limit  of  punishment. — Six  days. 

Commanders'  punishments. 
No.  Nature.  '  Not  to  exceed— 


Imposition  of  copy  of  regulation  broken 

yCnrn  out  and  fall  in  one  hour  before  the  others t \\ 
Called  at  5.25,  dismissed  at  6.25 > 
xtra  drill  for  one  hour* 3  days. 

Stand  on  middle  deck  for  one  hour  after  prayers  (evening) 3  days. 

Defaulters'  tablet i  1  week. 

(The  above  punishments  may  be  inflicted  by  lieutenants  for  one  day.) 
Confined  to  cricket  field} 1  month. 


Extra  drill  one  hour,  leave  stopped,  go  ashore  one  hour  with  corporal,  and  No.  4.    4  days. 


*  Extra  drill  of  one  hour  is  divided  into  exercises  of  ten  minutes  each,  in  the  following  order :  Rifles, 
poles,  clubs. 

fNo.  5.  Diet— dry  bread  for  breakfast  and  tea;  not  allowed  soup,  beer,  or  second  course. 
J  Cadets  confined  to  the  cricket  field  are  to  report  themselves  to  the  gymnasium  sergeant. 

Mess  offenses  will  receive  mess  punishments. 

Permission  to  use  the  blue  boats  and  sailing  cutters  will  be  stopped  for  offenses 
committed  when  away  in  them. 

Offenses  after  the  third  time  to  be  considered  habitual,  and  the  punishment  to  be 
doubled,  or  the  case  reported  to  the  captain. 

Pocket  money  to  be  stopped  if  four  offenses  of  any  description  are  recorded  during 
the  week. 


CADETS'  MESS — ROUTINE  OF  DIET. 


231 


OFFENSES  TO  BE  RKPORTED  TO  THE  CAPTAIN. 

Improper  use  of  lights,  immoral  language  or  conduct,  including  falsehood  or  sub- 
terfuge, insubordination  or  disrespect  to  superiors,  improper  possession  of  others'  prop- 
erty, all  grievous  and  repeated  offenses. 

NOTE. — A  cadet  reported  more  than  three  times  in  the  week,  or  more  than  ten  times 
in  the  mouth,  to  a  lieutenant,  becomes  a  habitual  offender,  and  remains  as  such  until 
clear  of  the  defaulters'  book  for  one  week.  He  is  not  allowed  any  privileges,  and  for 
any  offense  is  reported  to  the  commander. 


NOTE    D. 

CADETS'  MESS— ROUTINE  OF  DIET. 


Days. 

Breakfast. 

Dinner. 

Tea. 

Tea  ;  eggs  ;  bread  and  but- 

Soup ;    lamb,    mutton,    or 

Tea  ;  cold  meat  ;  bread  and 

ter. 

veal,  and  bacon  ;  two  veg- 
etables. 

butter. 

Monday  ...... 

Coffee  ;    eggs    and    bacon  ; 

Beef,  roast  and  stewed  ;  two 

Tea  ;  cold  meat  ;  bread  and 

bread  and  butter. 

vegetables. 

butter. 

Tuesday  

Cocoa;    currie;   bread  and 
butter. 

Soup  ;  roast  mutton  or  lamb  ; 
two  vegetables. 

Tea  ;    water   cress  ;*   cold 
meat  ;  bread  and  butter. 

"Wednesday  .. 

Coffee;    eggs   and    bacon; 
bread  and  butter. 

Roast  beef;  two  vegetables; 
two  sweets. 

Tea  ;  cold  meat  :  bread  and 
butter. 

Thursday  

Cocoa  ;    sausages  ;  t    bread 
and  butter. 

Soup;  boiled  mutton,  caper 
sauce  ;  two  vegetables. 

Tea  ;  cold  meat  ;  bread  and 
butter. 

Friday  

Coffee  •    efo's   and   bacon  ; 

Roast  mutton  or  lamb  -J  two 

Tea  ;    water   cress  •*   cold 

bread  and  butter. 

vegetables. 

meat  ;    bread,   jam   and 
cream. 

Saturday  

Cocoa  ;  fish  or  bacon  ;  bread 
and  butter. 

Roast  beef;  two  vegetables  ; 
two  sweets. 

Tea  ;  cold  meat  ;  bread  and 
butter. 

*  If  procurable.  t  Except  in  summer.  J  In  season. 

Half  pound  bun  loaf  and  quarter  pint  of  milk  on  afternoons  of  Monday,  Tuesday,  Thursday,  and 
Friday. 


NOTE   E. 

EXAMINATION  PAPERS:  H.  M.  S.  BRITANNIA. 

July,  1878. 
FIRST  TERM. 

ALGEBRA. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Resolve  into  factors  the  expressions  ar!  -f- 1  and  x2 — x — 30. 

2.  From  5zr'  +  4oar»  —  3a3x:!  -f  ba?&  -f  a5  subtract  3ar— 7o5x:j  -f-  ISa3*5  —  Ilo4x— 7a\ 

3.  Multiply  ^.{-^  —  -^by^T  —  x|-{-^' 


232  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

4.  Divide  10a:i  +  lla-b  —  15a2c  —  Wabc  +  3a&3  -f  lo&c3  —  5&2c  by  5a2  +  3«&  —  56c. 

5.  Simplify  the  expressions — 

/     \  Cl"  ™|—  0"  ft  0  , 

1  ;  a*  —  V  +  ~d+b~a^l)' 


2a  +  36  —  -  j 

a  +  — 

6.  Find  the  H.  C.  F.  of  the  expressions  6x*  —  2x3  +  7x*  —  x  +  2  and  Go;4  — 
21z2  —  6z  +  9. 

7.  Solve  the  equations  — 

(a)  (x  +  3)(a:  —  l)  =  (a;  +  2)*-9. 
m  5(2  —  ap      7  +  x       3       2x  +  9 
W         6~~         ~2         10~      5      +<J 

8.  A  certain  number,  when  increased  by  72,  is  three  times  as  large  as  the  original 
number.     Find  the  original  number. 

9.  A  ship's  company  of  260  men  was  composed  of  seamen,  marines,  and  stokers;  the 
stokers  \vere  10  more  in  number  than  the  marines,  but  90  less  than  the  seamen.     How 
many  were  there  in  all? 

ARITHMETIC. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  Highest  Common  Factor,  and  what  by  the  Lowest  Common 
Multiple  of  two  or  more  numbers  ? 

Find  the  H.  C.  F.  and  L.  C.  M.  of  266,  399,  and  456. 

2.  How  many  Mexican  dollars  worth  3s.  lOfd.  each  are  worth  35,530  Spanish  dollars 
at  3s.  11$<7.  each? 

3.  Simplify 


7(1*  o 

''" 


4.  Reduce  £  of  1\  of  16f  yards  to  the  fraction  of  a  furlong  ;  and  \  of  1  oz.  13  dwt. 
to  the  decimal  of  \\  of  5  dwt.  15  grs. 

5.  Find  the  value  of  .375  of  a  guinea  +  .54  of  Ss.  3d.  +  1.027  of  21.  15s.,  and  express 
the  result  as  the  decimal  of  51. 

6.  Find  the  square  roots  of  1.014049  and  175tfc. 

7.  Find,  by  practice,  the  value  of  6  tons  7  cwt.  2  qrs.  17  Ib.  at  31.  10s.  Id.  per  cwt. 

8.  A  mine  is  worth  3,700?.,  and  a  man  who  owns  -fg  of  it  sells  .1351  of  his  share. 
What  money  does  he  receive  for  it  ? 

9.  If  7  men  working  lOf  hours  a  day  can  earn  41.  15s.  3d.  in  5J  days,  what  siirn  will 
28  men  earn  in  15J  days  if  they  work  5.3  hours  a  day  ? 


(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 
1.  Translate  into  English,  parsing  the  words  in  italics : 

(a.)  ^Ethiopes,  pardorum  leonumque  pelliltus  amicti,  arcus  habent  pnulougos : 
sagittas  vero  breves :  his  pro  ferro  lapides  acuti  pnefixi  suiit.  Hastas  prai- 
terea  habent,  his  prcvfixa  sunt  cornua  cervorum:  habent  etiam  clavas 
nodosas.  Corporis  dimidium,  in  pugnam  prodeuutes,  creta  dealbatum 
habent,  dimidium  minio  pictum.  Alii  caput  tectum  habent  pelle  equiua, 
de  capite  eqni  detracta,  cum  auribus  et  juba.  Pro  scutis  gruum  pellibus 
corpora  tegunt. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS BRITANNIA.  233 

(&.)  Interim  adveuit  Persians  exercitup;  sed  quum  pontera  solutum  vidissent, 
magnopere  timebaut  ne  ab  lonibus  desererentur.  Erat  tune  apud  Darium 
vir  JEgyptins,  omnium  liomiuuiu  maxima  voce  pneditus.  Huuc  Darius 
jussit,  in  ripa  stantem,  vocare  Histhuum  Milcsium.  Quod  ubi  fecit.  His- 
tiii'iis  statim,  uavibus  omnibus  ad  trajiciendum  exercitum  paratis,  pontem 
jnuxit.  Ita  Persa;  e  Scytharum  manibus  effugerunt. 

(c.)  Ad  lut'c  lones  responderunt :  "Nos  Ionia  misit  ut  mare  custodiamus;  non  ut 
naves  uostras  tradentes  Cypriis,  ipsi  cum  Persis  pedestri  acie  coufligamus. 
'Nos  igitur,  qua  parfce  locati  sumus,  in  ea  utilem  prtestare  opcram  conabi- 
niur:  vos  autem,  memores  qualia  Persis  parentes  passi  ab  illis  sitis,  fortes 
viros  esse  oportet."  Post  ha>c,  quum  Perss«  in  Salaminiorum  advenissent 
campum,  aciem  instruxerunt  reges  Cypriorum :  ita  quidem  ut  ceteros 
Cyprios  hostium  ceteris  militibus  opponerent,  Persis  autem  fortissimos  e 
Salaminiis  selectos.  Contra  Artybium  vero,  ducem  Persarum,  lubens  stetit 
Onesilus. 

(d.)  Post  digressum  Persarum  ex  liac  regione,  commota  tremuit  Delos:  quod  nee 
ante  id  ternpus,  ut  aiunt  Delii,  uec  post,  ad  rnearn  usque  jetatem,  factum 
est.  Et  hoc  quidem  prodigium  edidit  Dens,  ut  imrm'nentia  hominibus 
mala  significaret.  Constat  autem  regnautibus  Dario,  Xerxe,  Artaxerxe, 
pluramala  afflixisse  Gneciam  quam  per  viginti  alias  generationes  qu;w  ante 
Darium  exstiterint.  Itaque  non  sine  causa  commota  est  Delos.  Et  in 
vaticinio  ita  scriptum  est: 

Et  Delum,  quamvis  sit  adhuc  immota,  movebo. 

Haec  autem  tria  nomina  hoc  significant  Grteco  sermone :  Darius  coercitorem, 
Xerxes  bellatorem,  Artaxerxes  magnum  bellatorem. 

2.  (a.)  Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  verbs  to  which  belong  jussit,  trajiciendum, 

junxit,  tradentes,  stetit,  scriptum  est. 
(6.)  Where  was  Delos,  and  for  what  was  it  famous? 

(N.  B. — The  aid  of  dictionaries  is  permitted  for  the  rest  of  the  paper.) 

3.  Translate  into  English: 

Otho,  occiso  Galba,  invasit  imperium,  materno  genere  nobilior,  quam  paterno, 
netitro  tamen  obscuro :  in  privatA  vitil  mollis,  et  Nerouis  familiaris :  in  imperio 
docunientum  sui  non  potuit  ostendere.  Nam  cum  iisdem  temporibus,  qiiibus 
Otho  Galbam  occiderat,  etiam  Vitellius  factus  esset  a  Germauicianis  exerciti- 
bus  imperator,  bello  contra  eum  suscepto,  cum  apud  Bebriacum  in  ItaM  levi 
proalio  victus  esset,  iugentes  tamen  copias  ad  bellum  haberet,  sponte  semetip- 
sum  occidit,  petentibus  militibus,  ne  tarn  cito  de  belli  desperaret  eventu,  cum 
tanti  se  non  esse  dixisset,  ut  propter  eum  civile  bellum  commoveretur.  Vol- 
untarift  morte  obiit,  trigesimo  et  octavo  a^tatis  anno,  nonagesimo  et  quinto 
imperii  die. 

4.  Translate  into  Latin : 

(a.)  The  whole  of  the  country  was  desolated  by  a  great  famine. 

(6.)  The  bees  are  storing  up  honey  that  they  may  be  able  to  live  through  the 

winter. 
(c.)  The  messenger  declared  that,  having  recruited  his  strength,  he  was  willing 

to  finish  his  journey. 
(d.)  At  Dodona,  a  town  of  Epirus,  the  very  doves  are  said  to  have  delivered 

oracles  from  the  trees. 
(e.)  We  are  permitted  to  fight  on  horseback. 

FRENCH. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 
I.  Translate  into  French : 


234  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

The  master  of  the  parish. 

As  a  country  schoolmaster  was  one  day  entering  his  school-room  he  was  met  by  a 
certain  nobleman,  who  asked  him  his  name  and  vocation.  Having  declared  his  name, 
he  added:  "And  I  am  master  of  this  parish."  "Master  of  this  parish!"  observed  the 
peer;  "ho  wean  that  be?"  "I  am  master  of  the  children  of  the  parish,"  said  the  man; 
"  the  children  are  masters  of  their  mothers;  the  mothers  are  the  rulers  of  the  fathers, 
and  consequently  I  am  master  of  the  whole  parish." 

II.  Translate  into  English  : 

Un  toast  litte'mire. 

Le  poete  anglais  Campbell  fut  invite"  a  diner  par  sou  dditeur.  Tous  les'autres  convives 
6taient  des  libraires.  Au  dessert,  I'h6te  invita  le  Celebris  anteur  a  porter  un  toast 
Iitt6raire.  Campbell  se  leva  et  dit  soleunellemeut :  "a  NapohSon"!  Les  convives 
furent  fort  surpris,  car  les  sentiments  libe"raux  de  l'6mineut  e"crivam  dtaient  connus,  et 
de  plus  on  savait  qu'il  dtait  grand  enuemi  de  Bonaparte.  "Mais,  monsieur,"  dit  l'e"di- 
teur,  "je  vous  ai  demafide  un  toast  litteraire."  "Et  c'est  un  toast  littdraire  que  je  vous 
donne,"  rdpoudit  Campbell ;  "  je  propose  la  sante  de  1'empereur  Napol6on,  parce  qu'il 
a  reudu  uu  immense  service  a  lalittdrature,  en  faisaut  fusilier  un  libraire."  (II  faisait 
allusion  an  pauvre  libraire  allemand  Palm,  coudamne"  par  uu  conseil  de  guerre  francais 
et  exe~cut6  sur  1'ordre  de  Napole"on,  pour  la  publication  d'une  brochure  politique. ) 

III.  GRAMMAR: 

1.  Parse  the  words  printed  in  italics. 

2.  Give  in  a  table — 

(a)  the  present  participle, 

(&)  the  past  participle,  masculine  and  feminine, 

(c)  the  present  indicative,  second  person  singular  and  plural, 

(d)  the  subjunctive  present,  first  person  singular  and  plural — of  diner,  etre, 

lever,  apercevoir,  pendre. 

3.  Give  the  plural  of  mal,  bal,  ballc;  eau,beau,  l)leu,  fou,  clou;  voix,  fih,  gaz. 

4.  Give  the  feminine  forms  corresponding  to  turc,  f/rec,  l)lanc.  malin,  marin,  espagnol, 

cruel,  acteur,  majeur,  voleur. 

SECOND  TERM. 

ALGKBRA. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Simplify  the  fraction — 

6 , 1 , 1      1_1 

6  —  a      '    1 1  ' 

2.  Resolve  into  factors  the  expression:  x3 —  4ax2 — 5a2aj. 

3.  If  2s  =  a  +  6  +  °>  prove  that — 

s2  -\-(s  —  a)2+  (s  —  &)2  +  (s  —  c)2  =  «2-|- 

4.  Find  the  L.  C.  M.  of  x3  —  4x2  +  4x  —  3,  and  x3  —  x2  —  7x  +  3 

5.  Extract  the  square  root  of  4X4  —  5  «3.+  -~  xa  —  4x  +  9. 

•  t  y  . 

6.  Solve  the  equations — 

.,  ,  2x  — 13      15  — x      x  + 3 
(a)  — __     _  —  _X.... 


EXAMINATION    PAPEKS  -  BRITANNIA.  235 

7.  In  a  certain  examination  three  candidates  competed.     The  second  ohtained  half 
many  marks  again  as  the  third,  but  350  less  than  the  first,  while  they  had  in  all 

1,950  marks  between  them.     How  many  marks  did  each  obtain  ? 

8.  A  person  has  9f  hours  at  his  disposal.     How  far  may  he  travel  on  a  coach  at  9 
miles  an  hour,  so  as  to  return  home  in  time,  walking  back  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an 
hour  ? 

9.  Solve  the  equations  — 


y—  x       x    ~20' 

ARITHMETIC. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.  ) 

1.  Divide  .14  by  7,  140  by  .07,  and  .014  by  7000;  add  the  results  together,  and  ex- 
press the  sum  as  a  vulgar  fraction. 

2.  Express  A        ,  .     '  ,  A  -  ojr  of  U.  as  the  fraction  of  1*  guineas. 

vi'  —  »/  X  (.*       «JTJ    . 

3.  Add  together  .60625  of  11,  .142857  of  Us.  W$d.,  and  2^-  of  -ft-  of  3Z.  5».  Id.,  and 
express  the  sum  as  the  decimal  of  171.  10s. 

4.  Extract  the  square  roots  of  1.002001  and  6.249. 

5.  Find  the  cost  of  carpeting  a  room  whose  dimensions  are  19  ft.  6  in.  long  and  16 
ft.  3  in.  wide,  with  carpet  f  yard  wide  at  4s.  6d.  a  yard. 

6.  How  much  will  375Z.  17s.  Gd.  amount  to  in  15|  years  at  3^  per  cent,  simple  in- 
terest ? 

7.  One  tap  can  fill  a  cistern  in  30  minutes,  and  another  can  fill  it  in  40  minutes,  and 
the  discharge  tap  can  empty  it  in  25  minutes.     Suppose  the  cistern  to  be  empty  and 
all  the  taps  to  be  open,  in  what  time  will  the  cistern  be  full  ? 

8.  If  3  men  working  11  hours  a  day  can  reap  a  field  of  20  acres  in  11  days,  in  how 
many  days  can  9  men  working  12  hours  a  day  reap  a  field  of  100  acres  ? 

9.  If  flour  be  worth  $10.13  per  sack  of  280  Ibs.  in  America,  and  the  cost  of  convey- 
ance be  $1  per  sack,  at  what  price  per  pound  must  it  be  sold  :n  England  so  that  the 
gain  may  be  12£  per  cent  ? 

Exchange  $477  =  100?. 

NAVIGATION. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Define,  with  diagrams,  course,  distance,  middle  latitude,  diff.  long. 

2.  A  ship  sails  S.  430  miles  from  a  place  in  lat.  33°  50'  S.,  long  11°  50'  E.  ;  find  her 
lat.  and  long. 

3.  How  must  a  ship  sail  from  lat.  35°  50'  N.,  long.  36°  50'  W.,  to  reach  a  port  in  lat. 
35°  50'  N.,  long.  13°  25'  W.,  and  what  is  her  distance  from  it? 

4.  A  ship  sails  NE.  by  E.  from  a  port  in  lat.  38°  50'  S.,  long.  93°  35'  W.,  until  her 
dift".  lat.  is  285  miles  ;  find  the  distance  she  has  sailed,  and  her  lat.  and  long. 

5.  Find  (by  middle  latitude  sailing)  the  course  and  distance  from  Cape  Race  to 
Cape  Finisterre: 

Cape  Race.  Cape  Finisterre. 

Lat.  46°  10'  N.  Lat.  42°  54'  N. 

Long.  53°  3'  W.  Long.  9°  16'  W. 

15.  Find  the  compass  course  and  distance  from  A  to  B  : 

Lat.  A  5°  50'  S.  Lat.  B  18°  10'  N. 

Long.  A  168°  35'  E.  Long.  B  173°  20'  W. 

Variation  12°  30'  E.  ;  deviation  8°  50/  E. 

7.  Find  the  true  course  made  by  a  ship,  the  compass  course  being  E.  by  S.  i  S., 
variation  2£  points  W.,  deviation  9°  25'  E.,  leeway  If  points,  wind  S.  by  E. 

8.  Give  definitions  of  variation  and  deviation  of  the  compass,  and  find  how  a  ship 


236  NAVAL  EDUCATION- — APPENDIX. 

must  be  steered  to  reach  an  island  bearing  SW.  £  W.  (true)  if  the  variation  be  8° 
50'  W.,  deviation  5°  45'  W.  Also,  if  the  wind  be  SSE.,  and  the  leeway  be  1  point. 
9.  A  ship  sails  from  a  port  in  lat.  6°  50'  N.,  long.  88°  55'  E.  as  follows:  SW.  £  W. 
120',  N.  by  E.  i  E.  85',  W.  by  N.  |  N.  105',  S.  55°,  W.  42'.  Find  the  lat.  and  long, 
arrived  at. 

FRENCH. 
(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

I.  Translate  into  French  : 

Haveloek's  general  order  to  his  troops  after  the  battle  of  Cawnpore. 

Soldiers !  Your  general  is  satisfied  and  more  than  satisfied  with  you.  He  has  never 
seen  steadier  troops.  But  your  labors  are  only  beginning.  Between  the  7th  and  the 
16th  instant  you  have,  under  the  Indian  sun  of  July,  inarched  126  miles  and  fought ' 
four  actions.  But  your  comrades  at  Lucknow  are  in  peril ;  Agra  is  besieged  ;  Delhi 
still  the  focus  of  mutiny  and  rebellion.  Three  cities  have  to  be  saved ;  two  strong 
places  to  be  blockaded.  Your  general  is  confident  that  he  can  effect  all  these  things 
and  restore  this  part  of  India  to  trauquility,  if  you  only  second  him  with  your  efforts, 
and  if  your  discipline  is  equal  to  your  valor. 

II.  Translate  into  English  (dictionary  allowed) : 

C*etait  en  Anglelerre,  &  I'^poque  de  la  Ite'rolution  francaise.     Le  Due  de  Bedford  avait 

offert  an  Due  de  G ,  e'uiigre',  un  splendide  repas,  nne  de  ces  fetes  quasi-royales 

<{iie  les  grands  seigneurs  anglais  mettent  leur  honneur  a  douuer  a  des  souverains,  leur 
bon  gout  a  offrir  a  des  exile's.  Au  dessert,  on  apporta  une  certaine  bouteille  d'un  vin 
de  Constance  merveilleux,  sans  pareil,  sans  age,  sans  prix.  C'6tait  de  1'or  liquide, 
dans  uu  cristal  sacre" ;  un  tre"sor  fondu  qfflbn  vous  admettait  a  de"guster ;  un  rayon  de 
soleil  qu'on  faisait  descendre  dans  votre*  verre :  c'etait  le  nectar  supreme,  le  dernier 
mot  de  Bacchus.  Le  Due  de  Bedford  voulut  verser  Iui-m6me  a  son  hote  cette  liqueur 
des  dieux.  Le  Duc'de  G prit  le  verre,  goftta  le  prdtendu  viu,  et  le  declara  ex- 
cellent. Le  Due  de  Bedford  voulut  en  boire  a  son  tour ;  rnais  a  peine  a-t-il  porte"  le 
verre  a  ses  levres  qu'il  s'6cria  avec  un  horrible  degoflt:  "Ah!  qu'est-ce  que  c'est  que 
ca  ?"  On  accourt  vers  lui,  on  examine  la  bouteille,  on  interroge  le  parfum  :  c'dtait  de 

1'huile  de  castor!   ....     Le  Due  de  G avait  avale"  cette  detestable  drogue  sans 

sourciller.  Ce  trait  sublime  fit  grand  honneur  a  la  noblesse  de  France;  on  concut  une  haute 
idee  d'unpays  ou  la  politesse  allaitjitsqu'a  Vheroisme. — MADAME  EMILE  DE  GIRARDIN. 

III.  GRAMMAR: 

1.  Parse  the  words  of  the  first  and  last  sentences  (printed  in  italics). 

2.  Give  in  a  table — 

(a)  the  present  participle, 

(b)  the  past  participle,  masculine  and  feminine, 

(c)  the  present  subjunctive,  2d  person  singular  and  plural, 

(d)  the  future,  1st  person  singular  and  plural — 

of  offrir,  mettre,  vouloir,  boire,  s' 'eerier. 
Also  the  whole  imperative  of  s'en  aller  (negatively). 

3.  Give  the  feminine  forms  corresponding  to  doux,  triste,  blanc,  due,  bon,  merveilleux, 
pareil,  liquide,  hote. 

Also  the  feminine  of  tailleiir,  baillenr,  tuteur,  acheteur,  docteur,  empcreur,  ambassadeur, 
majeur,  sauveur;  gras,  ras,  gros,  clos,  exclu,  reclus,  favori,  poll,  citot/en,  secret,  muet. 

4.  Of  what  gender  are  Angleterre,  age,  prix,  or,  verre,  levres,  huile,  honneur,  hero'ismc? 
State  the  rules. 

Tour  is  of  both  genders.     What  is  its  meaning  when  feminine  ?     Give  a  list  of  words 
which  are  both  masculine  and  feminine ;  state  also  their  meanings. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS BRITANNIA.  237 


(Time  allowed,  three  hours.) 

1.  Translate  into  English,  parsing  the  words  in  italics: 

(rt.)  His  de  rebus  Ciesarcertiorfactus,  et  infirraitatem  Gallorum  veritns,  quodsunt 
in  consiliis  capiendis  mobiles,  et  novis  plerumque  rebus  student,  nihilhis 
committendum  existimavit.  Est  autem  hoc  Gallic;e  -consnetudinis,  uti 
et  viatores,  etiam  iuvitos,  consistere  cogaut,'  et,  quod  quisque  eorum  de 
qtiaque  re  audierit  aut  cognoverit,  quadrant ;  et  mercatores  in  oppidis  vul- 
gus  circuuisistat.  quibnsque  ex  regionibua  veniant,  quasque  ibi  res  cog- 
noveriut,  pronuutiare  cogant.  His  ruuioribus  atque  auditionibus  permoti 
de  snmmis  su-pe  rebns  consilia.  ineunt,  quorum  cos  e  vestigio  pocniterc  ne- 
cesse  est,  quuin  incertis  rumoribiis  serviant,  et  plerique  ad  voluntatem 
eorum  ficta  respondeatyt. 

(Z>.)  Ca'.sar.  paucosdies  in  eorum  finlbasuinratns,  omnibus  vicisa'dificiisque  incen- 
sis  frumentisqne  succiMis,  so  in  fines  Ubioruin  recepit;  atque  iis  auxilium 
suum  pollicitus,  si  ab  Sue  vis  premerentur,  hrec  ab  iis  cognovit:  Suevos, 
posteaquam  per  exploratores  pontem  fieri  comperisseut,  more  suoconcilio 
habito,nuntios  in  omnospartesdimisisse,  uti  de  oppidis  demigrarent,  libe- 
ros,  uxores,  suaque  omtiia  in  silvas  apponevent,  atque omnes  qui  arma  ferre 
possent  unum  in  locum  couveuirent :  huuc  esse  delectum  medium  ferere- 
gionum  carum  quas  Suevi  obtinerent :  hie  Rornanorum  adventum  ex- 
spectare  atque  ibi  decertare  constituisse.  Quod  ubi  C^esar  comperit,  om- 
nibus his  rebus  confectis,  quarum  rerum  causa  transducereexercitum  con- 
stitnerat,  ut  Germanis  metuin  injiceret,  ut  Sigambros  ulcisceretur,  ut 
Ubios  obsidione  liberaret.  diebus  omuino  decem  et  octo  trans  Rheunm 
consumptis,  satis  et  ad  laudein  et  ad  utilitatem  profectum  arbitratus,  se 
in  Galliam  recepit  pontemque  rescidit. 

(c.)  Hunc  ad  egrediendum  neqaaquam  idoneum  arbitratus  locum,  dum  reliqua- 
naves  eoconveuirent,  ad  lioram  nonam  in  anchoris  exspectavit.  Interim 
legatis  tribuuisque  militum  convocatis,  et.qua?  ex  "Voluseno  cognosset,  et 
qua1  fieri  vellet,  ostendit,  monuitquc — ut  rei  inilitaris  ratio,  maxinie  ut 
maritim;K  res  postularent,  ut  qua'  celerem  atqne  instabilem  niotum  habe- 
rent — ad  uutum  et  ad  tenipns  omnes  res  ab  iis  administrarentur.  His 
dimissis,  et  ventum  et  iostniu  uno  tempore  nactns  secundum,  dato  signo 
et  sublatis  anchoris,  circiter  millia  passuum  septem  ab  eo  loco  progressus 
aperto  ac  piano  litore  naves  constituit. 

2.  (a.)  Give  the  rules  which  govern  the  following  constructions:  in  consiliis  capiendis 

(la);  omnibus  vicis snccisis  (lo);  millia  passuum  septan proyressus 

(Ic). 

(ft.)  Decline,  in  both  the  singular  and  plural  number:  sui,  dies,  reliquus,  tempus, 
ccler. 

(N.  B. — Dictionaries  are  permitted  for  the  rest  of  the  paper.) 

3.  Translate  into  English : 

Cresar,  omni  exercitu  ad  utramque  partem  muuitionum  disposito,  ut  si  nsus 
veniat,  suum  quisque  locum  teneat  et  noverit,  e([uitatuni  ex  castris  educi,  et 
prtt'liuui  committi  jubet.  Erat  ex  omnibus  castris,  qua;  sumnium  undique 
jugum  tenebant,  desi>ectus,  atqne  omnium  militum  intenti  animi  pugna-  pro- 
veiitum  exspectabant.  Galli  inter  equites  raros  sagittarios  expeditosque  levis 
armatune  interjeceraut,  qni  snis  cedentibns  auxilio  succurrerent,  et  nostrorum 
equitum  impetus  s\istiuerent.  Ab  his  complures,  de  improviso  vulnerati,  pr<i'- 
lio  excedebant.  Cum  suos  pugna  superiores  esse  Galli  confiderent,  et  nostros 
multitudine  premi  viderent,  ex  omnibus  partibus  et  ii,  qui  munitionibus  con- 
tinebantur,  et  hi.  qui  ad  auxilium  couvenerant,  clamore  et  ululatu  suoruin 
animos  confirmabant. 


238  NAVAL    EDUCATION  -  APPENDIX. 

4.  Translate  into  Latin  : 

(a.)  Now  that  the  clouds  were  dispersed,  the   sun  burst  forth  with  increased 

splendor. 
(&.)  To  some  of  the  tribes  the  name  Macrobii  was  given,  because  they  were  sup- 

posed to  live  somewhat  longer  than  others. 
(c.)  Is  not  iron  a  metal  more  valuable  to  mankind  than  gold? 
(d.)  Perseus  came  to  the  assistance  of  Andromeda,  who  had  been  bound  to  a 

rock. 
(e.)  Are  we  permitted  to  take  away  our  horses,  our  arms,  and  our  baggage? 

THIRD  TERM. 
ARITHMETIC  AND  ALGEBRA. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Simplify— 

22.4      250        1.2 

.25  +  .8  +  70075' 

2.  At  what  rate  per  cent,  will  1,2507.,  lent  at  simple  interest,  amount  to  1,4122.  10s. 
in  3J  years  ? 

3.  If  120  cwt.  of  sugar  at  38  shillings  per  cwt.  be  mixed  with  90  cwt.  at  42  shillings 
per  cwt.,  at  what  price  per  Ib.  must  the  mixture  be  sold  to  realize  a  profit  of  10  per 
cent.  ? 

4.  Find  the  L.  C.  M.  of  6  (a;2  —  3x  —  23),  9  (re2  +  Ix  +  12),  and  8  (z2  —  4x  —  21). 

5.  Extract  the  square  root  of  4oj—1  +12x~*  +  29x~*  +  30x~~i  -f  25. 

6.  Simplify  the.  expressions  — 

(a)  2t/J+3^- 


(&)  V  29  +  12  -/r>. 
7.  Solve  the  equations  — 


.   . 
(a) 


x 
+  ' 


*y—x  4.  3(y~4>  _  14  _„  C 

05  y) 

8.  At  what  time  will  the  hands  of  a  watch  be  at  right  angles  to  one  another  between 
four  and  five  o'clock. 

9.  Solve  the  equations  — 


—  i/x  —  6  =  V  2%  —  5- 


10.  Two  travelers,  one  walking  half  an  hour  more  than  the  other,  start  together  to 
walk  2JL  miles;  if  the  first  reaches  his  destination  one  hour  before  the  other,  find  their 
rates  of  walking. 

11.  When  are  three  quantities  said  to  be  in  continued  proportion  ? 
If  a,  1),  c  be  in  continued  proportion,  prove  that  — 

:  36  -f  7c  :  :  5«  —  7&  :5&  —  7. 


EXAMINATION   PAPEES BRITANNIA.  239 

CHART  DRAWING. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

N.  B. — The  meridional  parts,  as  taken  out  of  the  tables,  and  all  the  work  must  be  sent  up. 

1.  Construct  a  chart,  arid,  laying  down  the  bearings  and  courses,  find  the  latitude 
and  longitude  in,  from  the  following : 

A  headland  A  (lat.  54°  46'  S.,  long.  141°  44'  W.)  and  an  island  B  (lat.  54C  27'  S., 
long.  140°  57'  W.)  bore  respectively  W.  by  N.  and  NNE. 
Afterwards  sailed  as  follows : 

True  courses.  Distance. 

ENE.  83' 

SW.  i  W.  95' 

SSE.  63' 

N.  by  E.  }  E.  152' 

NW.  by  W.  -68' 

S.  by  E.  76' 

To  be  drawn  on  a  scale  of  1.2  inches  to  a  degree  of  longitude,  and  to  extend  from 
lat.  53°  S.  to  lat.  57°  S.,  and  from  long.  138°  W.  to  142°  W. 

2.  Required  the  distance  and  compass  bearing  of  the  ship  in  her  last  position  from 
a  port  in  lat.  54°  52'  S.,  long.  138°  12'  W.     Variation  18°  E. ;  deviation  5°  E. 

3.  What  is  the  true  bearing  of  a  rock  which  bears  from  the  ship  in  her  last  position 
E.  by  S.  i  S.  ?    Variation  18°  E. ;  deviation  9°  W.     Place  the  rock  in  your  chart,  its 
distance  being  18  miles. 

NAVIGATION. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Define:  Course,  Distance,  Diif.  Lat.,  and  Departure.     Illustrate  your  definitions 
by  diagrams. 

2.  Prove  that  departure  =  diff'.  long.  X  cos.  mid.  lat. 

3.  A  ship  entering  a  harbor  on  a  NNE.  course,  with  a  deviation  of  8°  40'  E.,  has 
to  ]froceed  until  a  beacon  bears  NW.  by  W.  magnetic,  and  then  has  to  alter  course  to 
the  NW.,  on  which  course  the  deviation  will  be  10°  30'  W.     Find  the  compass  bearing 
of  the  beacon  immediately  before  and  after  the  change  in  the  course. 

4.  Fiud  the  time  at  New  York  (long.  73°  59'  W.)  and  also  at  Hong  Kong  (long.  113° 
40'  E.)  when  it  is9h  30™  a.  m.  at  Gibraltar  (long.  5°  22'  W.). 

5.  Required  the  compass  course  and  distance  from  A  to  B. 

Lat.  A.  56°  30'  N.  Long.  A.  5°  15'  E. 

Lat,  B.  56°  30'  N.  Long.  B.  3°  36'  W. 

Variation  25°  W.     Deviation  10°  W. 

6.  A. ship  sails  from  a  port  in  lat.  17°  50'  S.,  long.  168°  30'  W.,  as  follows:  E.  by 
N.  f  N.  117  and  S.  by  W.  80  miles.     Find  the  bearing  and  distance  of  the  port  of 
departure. 

7.  Define,  with  diagrams :  Right  Ascension,  Azimuth,  and  Hour  Angle  of  a  heavenly 
body.     Also,wDip,  Refraction,  and  Semidiameter. 

8.  May  27,  1866,  at  noon,  in  long.  128°  30'  W.,  the  obs.  mer.  alt.  of  the  sun's  L.L. 
was  62°  10'  50"  (zenith  N.  of  the  sun),  the  index  error  was  +  1'  52'',  height  of  the  eye 
above  the  sea  23  feet :  required  the  latitude. 

9.  January  10,  1878,  at  noon,  a  point  of  land  in  lat.  46°  40'  N.,  long.  53°  3'  W.  bore 
by  compass  N.  i  W.  (ship's  head  W.  by  S.),  distant  9  miles;  afterwards  sailed  as  by 
the  following  log  account :  required  the  lat.  and  long,  on  January  11  at  noon. 


240 


NAVAL  EDUCATION APPENDIX. 


H. 

K. 

Aths. 

Standard 
compass 
courses. 

c? 

0 

o 

Winds. 

Devia- 
tion. 

Remarks. 

>3 

1 

5 

5 

W.  by  S  . 

, 

S.  by  W. 

9°  10'  W. 

P.M. 

2 

5 

4 

3 

5 

0 

4 

4 

8 

5 

4 

5 

6 

5 

0 

7 

5 

5 

8 

6 

2   { 

SE     by 
S.  *  E. 

j    U 

S. 

8°  0'  E. 

9 

6 

5 

10 

6 

8 

11 

6 

2 

12 

6 

0 

Variation  of  compass,  26°  30'  W. 

1 

10 

2 

N.  by  E. 

0 

SW. 

2°  30'  E. 

A.M. 

2 

10 

0 

' 

3 

10 

5 

4 

10 

8 

5 

5 

5 

W.  |  N. 

i 

ssw. 

10°50'W. 

C 

5 

8 

7 

6 

4 

8 

6 

8 

9 

7 

2 

NW.  by 

i 

sw. 

7°  20'  W. 

W. 

10 

7 

0 

11 

7 

5 

12 

7 

8 

LATIN. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.   Translate  into  English,  parsing  the  words  in  italics : 

(a.)  Nee  enini,  dum  eram  vobiscum,  auiimim  meura  videbatis,  sed  eum  esse  in 
hoc  corpore  ex  iis  rebus  quas  gerebam  intelligebatis.  Euudem  igitur  esse 
creditotc,  etiam  si  nullurn  videbitis.  Nee  vero  clarorum  virorum  post  mor- 
tem honores  perniauerent,  si  nihil  eorum  ipsoruru  aiiimi  efficereut,  quo 
diutim  meinoriarn  sui  teneremus.  Mihi  quidem  numquam  persuaderi 
potuit,  animos,  duin  in  corporibus  essent  mortalibus,  vivere;  quum  exis- 
sent  ex  iis,  emori :  nee  vero  turn  aiiimum  esse  iu-sipientem,  quuiu  ex  iusip- 
ienti  corpore  evasisset;  sed  quum  onini  admixtione  corporis  liberatus 
purus  et  integer  esse  ceupisset,  turn  esse  sapicntcm.  Atque  etiam,  quum 
houiinis  natura  morte  dissolvitur,  ceteraruni  reruni  perspicuum  est  qtio 
queeq-ue  discedat ;  abeunt  enim  illuc  oninia,  unde  orta  suut :  animus  antem 
solus  nee  quum  adest  nee  quum  discedit  apparet. 

(6.)  Sophocles  ad  summam  senectutem  trag(cdias  fecit:  quod  propter  studinm 
quum  rem  negligere  familiarem  videretur,  a  filiis  in  judicium  vocatus  est, 
ut,  quemadmodum  nostro  more  male  rem  gerentibus  patribus  bonis  inter- 
dici  solet,  sic  ilium  quasi  desipientem  a  re  familiar!  removereiit  judices. 
Turn  senex  dicitur  earn  fabulam  (juam  in  nianibus  habebat  et  proximo 
scripserat,  (Edipum  Coloneum,  rccitasse  judicibus,  qu:usisseque  num 
illud  carmen  desipientis  videretur.  Quo  recitato,  sententiis  judicnm  est 
liberatus. 

(c.)  Inventi  autem  mult!  sunt  qui  non  niodo  pecuniam  sed  vitam  etiam  profundere 
pro  patria  parati  essent,  iidem  gloria?  jacturam  lie  minimam  quidem  facere 
vellent,  no  republica  quidem  postulante :  ut  Callicratidas,  (^ui  quum 
Laeeda'monioruiu  dux  fuisset  Peloponuesiaco  hello,  multaque  fecisset 
egregie,  vertit  ad  extremum  omnia,  quum  consilio  non  paruit  eorum  qui 
classem  ab  Arginusis  removendam,  nee  cum  Atheniensibus  diuiicandum 
putabant.  Quibus  ille  respond! t,  Lacedaiuionios,  classe  ilia  amissa,  aliam 
parare  posse,  se  fugere  sine  sno  dedecore  non  posse.  Atque  luvc  quidem 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS BRITANNIA.  241 

Lacedpemoniis  plaga  mediocris:  ilia  pestifera,  qua  quum  Cleombrotus, 
invidiam  timens,  temere  cum  Epaminonda  conflixisset,  Lacedajmoniorum 
opes  corruerunt, 

2.  (a.)  "Invidiam  timens"  (passage  1  c).     To  what  battle  is  reference  here  made  ? 
(6.)  Write  out  in  full  the  imperative  mood  active  of  the  verb  credo,  the  perfect 

tense  subjunctive  mood  of  possum,  and  the  future  perfect  tense  active  voice 
of  video. 
(N.  B. — The  aid  of  a  dictionary  is  permitted  for  the  rest  of  the  paper.) 

3.  Translate  into  English : 

Cresar,  onmi  exercitu  ad  utramque  partem  muuitionum  disposito,  ut,  si  usus 
veniat,  snum  quisque  locum  teneat  et  noverit,  equitatum  ex  castris  educi,  et 
prcelium  committi  jubet.  Erat  ex  omnibus  castris,  qn:e  summum  undique 
jugum  tenebant,  despectus,  atque  omnium  militum  intenti  animi  pugme  pro- 
ventuiu  exspectabant.  Galli  inter  equites  raros  sagittarios  expeditosque  levis 
armaturju  interjecerant,  qui  suis  cedentibus  auxilio  succurrerent,  et  nostrorum 
equituin  impetus  sustinerent.  Ab  his  complures,  de  improvise  vulnerati, 
proalio  excedebant.  Cum  suos  pugna  superiores  esse  Galli  confiderent,  et 
nostros  multitudine  preini  videreut,  ex  omnibus  partibus  et  ii,  qui  munitionibus 
continebantur,  et  hi,  qui  ad  auxilium  conveneraut,  clamore  et  ululatu  suorum 
animos  connrmabant. 

4.  Translate  the  following  passages  into  Latin : 

(a.)  Who  can  doubt  that  the  greatest  general  owes  many  of  his  victories  to  good 

luck  ? 
(Z>.)  The  Nile  supports  the  crocodile,  a  monster  not  less  terrible  to  man  on  laud 

than  in  the  river, 
(c. )  I  think  that  re-enforcements  should  be  sent  the  consul,  that  he'may  attack 

the  enemy  with  greater  confidence. 
(d.)  Some  are  wanting  in  courage,  others  in  honesty. 
(e. )  Apollo  was  supposed  to  carry  in  his  right  hand  a  bow  and  arrows,  in  his  left 

hand  a  lyre. 

FINAL  EXAMINATION. 
»  ARITHMETIC  AND  ALGEBRA. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  A  vulgar  fraction  has  for  its  numerator  209,  and  its  nearest  approximate  value  to 
three  places  of  decimals  is  .511;  what  is  its  denominator? 

2.  A  bankrupt  owes  1,765?. ;  his  property  realizes  540Z.,  and  he  has  debts  owing  to 
him  of  927?.  10s.,  of  which  he  recovers  12s.  in  the  pound.     Whatjjdividend  can*he 
pay? 

3.  Express  in  its  simplest  form 


4.  Reduce  to  its  lowest  terms  the  fraction  — 

x3  —  2aar2  —  5a"x  —  12a3 
—   4o3 


5.  (a.)  Divide3v^5  +  2\/3by  4  i/$ 

(b.)  Extract  the  fourth  root  of  193  -f  132  V~- 

6.  Multiply  x-2  +  2*-V*  +  !l~2  by  ^  —  &y  +  ?/*' 

7.  Solve  the  equations  — 

(a.)  5  (4z  +  1)  —  ?  (8x  +  7)  =  f  (9  — 


(b.)  i/x  —         *  —  -\/  ax  +  a?  =  -\/  a. 
S.  Ex.  51  -  16 


242  NAVAL    EDUCATION  —  APPENDIX. 

8.  The  rent  of  a  farm  consisting  partly  of  arable  land  at  11.  10s.  per  acre,  and  partly 
of  pasture  land  at  11.  5s.  per  acre,  was  375Z.     Had  the  number  of  acres  of  arable  been 
one^fifth  greater,  and  of  pasture  land  one-third  less  than  if  was,  the  rent  would  have 
been  '3701.     Find  the  number  of  acres  in  the  farm. 

9.  Solve  the  equations  — 

,     ,  x  -f-  4      2x  —  7 

^  *=*--£+*=*• 

xy  +  x  +  y  =   23  > 
''  *      =120$ 


10.  A  contractor  spent  200Z.  every  week  in  the  wages  of  his  workmen;  being  com- 
pelled to  raise  the  wages  of  each  by  5s.  4d.  per  week,  he  found  that  he  was  able  to 
employ  25  men  less  than  before  for  the  same  sum.     How  many  men  did  he  employ  ? 

11.  When  are  three  quantities  said  to  be  in  continued  proportion? 

If  a,  Z>,  c  be  in  continued  proportion,  prove  that  (a2  -f-  &2)  (&2  +  c2)  =  («&  +&c)2. 

12.  (a.)  The  sum  of  the  first  and  fourth  term  of  an  arithmetical  series  is  2,  and  the 
sum  of  the  second,  third,  and  sixth  terms  is  —  11;  find  the  sum  of  8  terms  of  the 
series. 

(&.)  Investigate  an  expression  for  the  sum  of  n  terms  of  a  geometric  series.  Sum 
the  series  —  $•  -f-  i  —  ^  +  &c.,  to  7  terms. 

GEOMETRY. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  If  a  straight  line  fall  on  two  parallel  straight  lines  it  makes  the  alternate  angles 
equal  to  one  another,  and  the  exterior  angle  equal  to  the  interior  and  opposite  angle 
on  the  same  side;  and  also  the  two  interior  angles  on  the  same  side  together  equal  to 
two  right  angles. 

Show  that  the  difference  between  the  alternate  angles  made  by  any  straight  line 
falling  upou  two  given  straight  lines  is  invariable.  Under  what  conditions  will  this 
difference  be  zerof 

2.  Equal  triangles  ou  the  same  base,  and  on  the  same  side  of  it,  are  between  the 
same*  parallels. 

The  sides  AB  and  AC  of  a  triangle  are  bisected  in  D  and  E  respectively,  and  BE, 
CD  are  produced  until  EF=EB,  and  GD  =  DC,  show  that  the  line  GF  passes 
through  A. 

3.  If  a  straight  line  be  divided  into  two  equal  parts  and  also  into  two  unequal 
parts,  the  rectangle  contained  by  the  unequal  parts,  together  with  the  square  on  the 
line  between  the  points  of  section,  is  equal  to  the  square  on  half  the  line. 

Prove  that  the  area  of  a  square  is  greater  than  the  area  of  a  rectangle  of  the  same 
perimeter. 

4.  Describe  a  circle  about  a  given  triangle. 

If  a  circle  be  described  about  a  triangle  ABC,  and  perpendiculars  be  let  fall  from 
the  angular  points  A,  B,  C  on  the  opposite  sides,  and  produced  to  meet  the  circle  in 
D,  E,  F,  respectively,  show  that  the  arcs  EF,  FD,  1)E  are  bisected  in  the  points  A, 
B,  C. 

5.  If  the  vertical  angle  of  a  triangle  be  bisected  by  a  straight  line  which  also  cuts 
the  base,  the  segments  of  the  base  shalLhave  the  same  ratio  which  the  other  sides  of 
the  triangle  have  to  one  another;  and  if  the  segments  of  the  base  have  thesame  ratio 
which  the  other  sides  of  the  triangle  have  to  one  another,  the  straight  line  drawn 
from  the  vertex  to  the  point  of  section  shall  bisect  the  vertical  angle. 

6.  The  sides  about  the  equal  angles  of  triangles  which  are  equiangular  to  one  an- 
other are  proportionals,  and  those  which  are  opposite  to  the  equal  angles  are  homol- 
ogous sides;  that  is,  are  the  antecedents  or  the  consequents  of  the  ratios. 

7.  Explain  the  terms:  Similar  rectilineal  figures,  duplicate  ratio. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS  -  BRITANNIA.  243 

Similar  polygons  may  be  divided  into  the  same  number  of  similar  triangles,  having 
the  same  ratio  to  one  another  that  the  polygons  have  ;  and  the  polygons  are  to  one 
another  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  their  homologous  sides. 

TRIGONOMETRY. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Detinexthe  tangent  and  versine  of  an  angle,  and  express  the  tangent  in  terms  of 
the  versiue. 

Between  what  limits  does  the  value  of  the  versine  lie,  and  for  what  angle  is  it  greatest  ? 

2.  What  are  the  units  chiefly  made  use  of  in  measuring  angles  ? 

If  the  unit  of  angular  measurement  be  the  angle  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  how 
many  degrees  are  there  in  the  angle  represented  by  .6? 

3.  Prove  geometrically  that  — 

(a)  cos  (90°  +  A)  =—  sin  A. 
(ft)  cos  (A  +  B)  =  cos  A  cos  B  —  sin  A  sin  S. 
From  the  second  of  these  equations  deduce  the  value  of  sin  (A  —  S). 

4.  Show  that  if  x  =  45°  sin  (x  +  a)  =  cos  (x  —  a). 

5.  Prove  the  identities  : 

(a)  cos  3  A  =  4  cos3  A  —  3  cos  A. 


=  cot  0. 


A  —  S 
tan  — 

(c)  cos  A  —  cos  B  2 


cos  A  -|-  cos  B 


2 

6.  Investigate  a  formula,  adapted  to  logarithmic  calculation,  for  finding  the  angles 
of  a  plane  triangle,  the  sides  of  which  are  given. 

In  the  triangle  ABC,  a  =  97.6,  6  =  101.4,  and  c  =  119.6,  find  the  angle  A. 

7.  The  area  of  a  quadrilateral  field  ABCD  is  3,495  square  yards.     The  sides  AB,  EG 
and  diagonal  AC  are  75, 81,  and  64  yards  respectively,  the  remaining  sides  AD,  DC  are 
equal  to  one  another,  and  the  angle  D  is  107°  38'.     Find  the  length  of  the  equal  sides 
AD,  DC. 

8.  Define  the  terms :  sphere,  spherical  triangle. 

Show  that  the  angles  of  a  spherical  triangle  are  together  greater  than  two  and  less 
than  six  right  angles. 

9.  Prove  that  in  any  spherical  triangle  ABC 

cos  a  —  cos  6  cos  c 
cos  4  =  —  — . 

sin  6  sin  c 

What  does  this  formula  become  (1)  when  the  angle  A  is  a  right  angle,  (2)  when  the 
side  (a)  is  a  quadrant,  and  (3)  when  applied  to  the  Polar  Triangle  ? 

10.  In  the  spherical  triangle  ABC,  given  a  —  86°  59',  6  =  106^'  17',  and  A  =  90°,  find 
the  remaining  parts. 

CHART  DRAWING. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

N.]B.— The  meridional  parts,  as  taken  out  of  the  Tables,  and  all  the  work  must  be 

sent  up. 

1.  Construct  a  chart,  and,  laying  down  the  bearings  and  courses,  find  the  latitude 
and  longitude  in,  from  the  following  : 


244  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

» 

Two  headlands  A  (lat.  54°  41'  N.,  long.  19°  40'  W.)  and  B  (lat.  54°  44'  N.,  long.  20° 
25'  W.),  bore  respectively  NNE.  and  NW.  by  W. 
Afterwards  sailed  as  tinder  : 

True  courses.  Distances. 

SSE.  55' 

SW.  78' 

ESE.  91' 

SSW.  I  W.  45' 

NW.  by  N.  144' 

E.  by  S.  93' 

To  be  drawn  oil  a  scale  of  1.22  inches  to  a  degree  of  longitude,  and  to  extend  from 
latitude  51°  to  latitude  55°  N.,  longitude  18°  W.  to  22°  W. 

2.  Find  the  compass  bearing  and  distance  of  the  ship  in  her  last  position  from  a  port 
in  lat.  52°  26'  N.  and  long.  21°  15'  W.;  variation,  30°  W.;  deviation,  3°  E. 

3.  What  is  the  true  bearing  of  a  rock  which  bears  from  the  ship  in  her  last  position 
SW.  i  W.;  variation,  30°  W.;  deviation,  9°  W. 

Place  the  rock  on  your  chart,  supposing  its  distance  14  miles. 

THEORETICAL  NAVIGATION. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Define  the  terms :  Equator,  Parallels  of  Latitude,  Course,  Distance,  and  Middle 
Latitude. 

Prove  the  formula  made  use  of  iu  Middle  Latitude  Sailing. 

2.  A  ship  in  lat.  27°  30'  S.  sails  west  550  miles  and  then  due  south;  subsequently  she 
alters  course  to  east,  and  after  sailing  420  miles  reaches  the  meridian  from  which  she 
started.     How  many  miles  has  she  sailed  in  the  southerly  direction  ? 

3.  Define  the  term  Celestial  Meridian.     .What  do  we  require  to  know  with  regard  to 
the  sun  in  finding  latitude  by  meridian  altitude  ? 

On  a  certain  day,  at  two  places  on  opposite  sides  of  the  equator,  the  sun's  meridian 
zenith  distance  was  double  the  latitude  of  the  place.  Having  given  the  declination 
10°  N.,  find  the  respective  latitudes. 

4.  Explain  the  terms:  Rational  Horizon,  Circles  of  Altitude,  Prime  Vertical. 

At  what  times  will  the  sun  be  on  the  prime  vertical  of  a  place  in  latitude  15°  30'  S. 
when  its  declination  has  the  following  values:  0°,  15°  30'  S.  and  5°  S.  respectively? 

5.  What  are  the  causes  of  twilight  f 

How  long  does  twilight  last  at  a  place  on  the  equator  when  the  sun's  declination  is 
12°  30'  N.  ? 

6.  Having  given  the  distance  between  the  sun  and  moon  86°  48',  the  declination  of 
the  sun  19°  10'  30"  S.,  of  the  moon  10°  8'  45"  N.,  and  the  right  ascension  of  the  sun 
15h  32m  47s,  find  the  right  ascension  of  the  moon,  which  lies  to  the  westward  of  the 
sun. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  Amplitude  of  a  heavenly  body  ? 

Find  the  compass  bearing  ot  the  sun  when  it  rises  at  6h  54ra  a.  in.  (apparent  time)  at 
a  place  in  lat.  30°  10'  N.,  Var.  16°  W.,  Dev.  7°  E. 

8.  A  ship  sails  from  lat.  51°  20'  S.,  long.  17°  25'  W.,  to  lat.  39°  22'  S.,  long.  21°  55' 
E.     Find  the  highest  latitude  reached. 

PRACTICAL   NAVIGATION. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

October  27,  1866,  at  noon,  a  point  of  land  in  lat.  25°  10'  S.,  long.  46°  30'  E.,  bore  by 
compass  N.  by  W.  ^  W.  (ship's  la-ad  being  SSE.)  distant  12  miles;  afterwards  sailed 
as  by  the  following  log  account ;  work  up  the  reckoning  to  noon,  October  28. 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS BRITANNIA. 


245 


H. 

K. 

Aths. 

Standard 
compass 

£ 

*         Winds. 

9 

Force. 

Bar. 
Ther. 

Devia- 
tion. 

Remarks. 

courses. 

i 

1 

5 

8 

SSE. 

1 

E.  by  N. 

• 

5°  20'  E. 

P.M. 

2 

5 

4 

3 

5 

5 

4 

6 

0 

5 

9 

5 

W.JN. 

0 

E. 

8°  50'  W. 

0 

9 

8 

7 

10 

2 

gh  25m,  variation  by  amp. 

8 

9 

5 

9 

8 

8 

10 

8 

5 

11 

4 

8 

S.  JW. 

1 

ESE. 

1°  10'  W. 

12 

4 

5 

1 

4 

8 

NE.|N. 

A.M. 

2 

5 

0 

3 

4 

5 

4 

4 

5 

5 

4 

0 

6 

5 

5 

1 

E.  by  S. 

6°  40'  E. 

7 

5 

8 

8h  30m  obs.  for  long. 

8 

6 

0 

9 

6 

2 

10 

6 

0 

11 

5 

8 

12 

5 

5 

Noon,  obs.  for  lat. 

Course    and    dis- 
tance made  good  . 

Latitude. 

Longitude. 

Variation           True  bearing  and  distance, 
allowed.                           Mauritius. 

D.  R. 

D.  E. 

Lat     20°  10'  S 

Current. 

Obs. 

Obs. 

18°  W.                       Long.  57°  30'  E! 

October  27,  at  6n  25m  p.  m.,  the  sun  set  by  compass  W.  12°  30'  N.  (Deviation  as  for 
ship's  head),  find  the  Variation. 

October  28,  at  8h  30m  a.  m.,  the  following  sights  were  taken  to  find  the  longitude: 
Times  by  chron.  Alt.  sun's  L.L. 

7h  42m  338  330  55/  49"  Index  error  —  35" 

43m    0»  59'  50"  Height  of  eye  24  feet. 

43m  25"  39°    4'  20" 

September  26,  at  G.  M.  noon,  the  chronometer  was  fast  on  G.M.T.  2b  27m  38.5s,  gain- 
ing daily  6.5  seconds. 

October  28,  at  noon,  the  obs.  mer.  alt.  of  the  sun's  L.L.  was  76°  48'  10"  (zenith  S.), 
index  error  and  height  of  eye  as  above,  find  the  latitude. 

PHYSICS. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Explain  carefully  how  a  Centigrade  thermometer  is  made  and  graduated. 
What  temperature  will  be  represented  by  the  same  number  in  the  Centigrade  and 

Fahrenheit  thermometers  ? 

2.  We  require  to  measure  accurately  the  changes  in  the  length  of  a  rod  of  metal  due 
to  changes  of  temperature.     Explain  how  this  can  be  done. 

3.  If  ice  at  0°C.  is  placed  in  a  vessel  to  which  heat  is  continuously  applied  trace  the 
changes  in  size,  state,  and  temperature  which  the  heat  will  produce. 

4.  Water  may  be  frozen  in  consequence  of  the  evaporation  from  its  surface.    Ex- 
plain under  what  circumstances  this  may  be  made  to  take  place. 

5.  How  has  the  velocity  of  light  been  determined  ? 

6.  What  is  a  photometer  ?     Describe  some  form  of  photometer. 

7.  A  candle  is  placed  in  front  of  a  concave  mirror  whose  radius  is  2  feet.     Where 
must  we  stand  in  order  to  see  the  images  when  the  distance  of  the  caudle  from  the 
mirror  is  first  4  feet,  then  1  foot  6  inches,  and  finally  6  inches  ?    Say  in  each  of  the 
three  cases  whether  the  images  are  larger  or  smaller  than  the  candle,  and  whether 
they  are  erect  or  inverted. 


246  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

8.  Describe  the  eye  as  an  optical  instrument.    What  defects  of  the  eye  are  corrected 
by  eye-glasses  ?    When  should  the  eye-glass  be  convex  and  when  concave  ? 

9.  What  is  the  fundamental  law  of  magnetism  ?    What  differences  as  regards  mag- 
netic properties  are  there  between  soft  iron  and  steel  ? 

10.  How  may  the  intensity  of  the  earth's  magnetism  in  two  different  places  be  com- 
pared? 

11.  Describe  the  electrophorus,  and  show  how  by  its  means  we  may  charge  a  Leyden 
jar. 

12.  What  properties  of  an  electric  current  are  utilized  in  telegraphy  ? 

LATIN. 
(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Translate  into  English  the  -following  passages,  parsing  the  words  in  italics : 

(a.)  Et  con  versus  ad  simulacrum  Jovis,  "  Audi,  Juppiter,  hsec  scelera,"  inquit ; 
"  audite  jus  Fasque.  Peregrines  cousules  et  peregrinum  senatum  in  tuo, 
Juppiter,  augurato  templo,  captus  ipse  atque  oppressus,  visurus  es  ? 
Haecine  foedera  Tullus,  Romanus  rex,  cum  Albanis,  patribus  vestris,  Latini, 
hsec  L.  Tarquinius  vobiscum  postea  fecit  ?  Non  venit  in  mentem  pugna 
apud  Regillum  lacum  ?  Adeo  et  cladium  veterum  vestrarum  et  beneficio'rum 
nostromm  erga  vos  oblitl  estis  ?  "  Quum  consulis  vocem  subsecuta  patrum 
indignatio  esset,  proditur  memorise,  adversus  crebram  implorationem  deum 
quos  testes  foederum  soepius  invocabant  consules,  vocem  Annii  spernentis 
numina  Jovis  Romani  auditam. 

(&.)  Vicit  tamen  pars,  quse  in  prtesentia  videri  potuit  majoris  animi  quam  con- 
silii ;  sed  eventus  docuit,  fortes  fortunam  juvare.  Bellum  ex  auctoritate 
patrum  populus  adversus  Vestinos  jussit.  Provincia  ea  Bruto,  Samnium 
Camillo  sorte  eveuit.  Exercitus  utroque  ducti,  et  cura  tuendorum  finium 
hostes  prohibit!  conjungere  arma.  Ceterum  alterum  consulem  L.  Furium> 
cui  major  moles  rerum  irnposita  erat,  morbograviimplicitumfortunabello 
subtraxit ;  jussusque  dictatorem  dicere  rei  gerendie  causa  longe  clarissi- 
mum  bello  ea  tempestate  dixit,  L.  Papirium  Cursorem,  a  quo  Q.  Fabius 
Maximus  Rullianus  magister  equitum  est  dictus,  par  nobile  rebus  in  eo 
magistratu  gestis,  discordia  tamen,  qua  prope  ad  ultimnni  dimicationis 
venttim  est,  iiobilius. 

(c.)  Fabius  contione  extemplo  advocata  obtestatus  milites  est,  ut,  qua  virtu te 
rem  publicam  ab  iufestissiniis  hostibus  defendissent,  eadem  se,  cujusductu 
auspicioque  vicissent,  ab  impotenti  crudelitate  dictatoris  tutarentur; 
venire  amentem  iiividia,  iratum  virtuti  aliense  felicitatique ;  furere,  quod 
se  absente  respublica  egregie  gesta  esset ;  nialle,  si  mutare  fortunam 
posset,  apud  Samnites  quam  Romanes  victoriam  esse  ;  imperium  dictitare 
spretum,  tanquam  non'eadeni  mente  pugnari  vetuerit,  qua  pugnatum 
doleat. 

2.  (a.)  Give  the   derivations  of  the  words:  simulacrum,   numen,  provincia,  auspicium, 

egregius. 
(&.)  Give  some  particulars  of  the  battle  at  the  lake  Regillus. 

(N.  N. — Dictionaries  are  permitted  for  the  remainder  of  the  paper.) 

3.  Translate  into  English: 

Cum  in  omnibus  locis,  cousumpta  jam  reliqua  parte  noctis,  pugnaretur,  seiuperque 
hostibus  spes  victorise  redintegraretur,  eo  magis  quod  deustos  pluteos  turrium 
videbaut,  nee  facile  adire  apertos  ad  auxiliandum  animum  advertebant,  sem- 
perque  ipsi  recentes  defessis  succederent,  omuemque  Galliaa  salutem  in  illo 
vestigio  temporis  positam  arbitrarentur,  accidit  iuspectantibus  nobis,  quod, 
dignum  memoria  visum,  pneterniittendum  non  existimavimus.  Quidam  ante 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS BRITANNIA.  247 

portam  oppidi  Gallus,  qui  per  maims  sevi  ac  picis  traditas  glebas  in  ignem  e 
regione  turris  projiciebat,  soorpioue  ab  latere  dextro  trajectus  exanimatusque 
conoidit.  Huuc  ex  proximis  unus  jacentem  transgressus,  eodein  ille  munere 
fungebatur;  eadeni  ratione  ictu  scorpionis  exaiiimato  aitero.  succesait  tertius, 
et  tertio  quartus ;  nee  prius  ille  est  a  propuguatoribns  vacuus  rel ictus  locus, 
quam,  restincto  aggere  atque  omni  ex  parte  submotis  hostibus,  finis  est 
pugnandi  factus. 
4.  Translate  into  Latin : 

(a.)  The  love  of  money  is  so  great  that  not  even  the  fear  of  death  can  altogether 

quell  it. 
(&.)  After  that  battle  they  sent  Pausauiusto  Cyprus,  to  drive  out  the  barbarians 

from  that  island, 
(c.)  Perseus  showed  his  enemies  the  head  of  the  Medusa,  by  the  sight  of  which 

all  were  changed  into  stones. 

(d.)  Cicero  warned  the  conspirators  to  conceal  nothing  from  the  judges. 
(e.)  We  pity  our  fellow-citizens,  who  have  lost  all  in  the  conflagration. 

FRENCH. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

I.  Translate  into  French : 

The  British  army. 

The  first  corps  raised  in  England  in  accordance  with  our  present  system,  and  in  fact 
the  first  germ  of  an  English  standing  army,  was  the  Coldstream  Guards,  raised  by 
General  Monk  at  Coldstream.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  several  others  were  added, 
and  by  1665  the  British  infantry  consisted  of  four  regiments  besides  the  Guards.  Be- 
fore the  close  of  the  century,  a  grenadier  company,  furnished  with  hand  grenades, 
had  been  added  to  each  regiment ;  bayonets  had  been  introduced  ;  several  regiments 
of  fusiliers,  originally  intended  to  protect  artillery,  had  been  raised  ;  and  the  principle 
of  a  standing  army  of  considerable  numbers  fairly  established.  Light  horse  were 
introduced  in  1745,  and  lancers  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  It  is  within  the  last  few 
years,  however,  that  the  greatest  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  British  army.  But 
the  advancement  and  elevation  of  the  soldier  himself  only  render  him  more  capable 
of  appreciating  the  traditions  of  his  corps. 

II.  Translate  into  English: 

UN  EPISODE  DEVANT  SEBASTOPOL. 

Je  m'fi'tais  arrete",  et  je  regardais  avec  une  Emotion  profonde  tous  ces  hommes  qui, 
un  instant  auparavant,  e"taient  pleins  d'audace  et  de  courage ;  tous  6taient  imrnobiles. 
Cependant,  sur  Fun  des  brancards  les  plus  rapprochAs  de  moi  se  soulevait  faiblement 
une  capote,  et  le  bras  du  blesse"  cherchait  a  atteindre  le  brancard  que  1'on  avait  place" 
a  c6te"  du  sien ;  un  instant  apres,  deux  mains  se  touchaient.  Celui  qui  le  premier 
avait  cherche'  cette  dtreiute  fraternelle,  rejeta  tout-a-coup  la  capote  dont  on  l'a.vait 
convert,  et  aux  premieres  Incurs  du  jour  je  le  vis  lever  la  t6t«,  essayer  de  se  soulover, 
puis  retomber. — Je  me  penchai  sur  lui ;  le  pauvre  soldat  etait  mort. — Cette  main 
e'tendue,  qui  voulait  presser  une  autre  main,  avait  ete"  le  dernier  adieu  du  mourant  a 
un  frere  d'armes. — CINQ  MOIS  AU  CAMP  DEVANT  SEBASTOPOL,  PAR  LE  BARON  DE 
BAZANCOURT. 

III.  GRAMMAR: 

1.  Write  down  the  present  participle  and  past  participle  of  each  of  the  following 
verbs:  Savoir,  voir,  mouvoir,  pouvoir;  rire,  dire,  ecrire;  manger,  placer,  re'gJer,  mener. 
Give  also  the  present  subjunctive  2d  person  singular  and  plural  of  each. 

Give  the  future,  first  person  singular,  of  sai-oir,  voir,  pouvoir. 


248 


NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 


2.  Give  the  feminine  form  of  each  of  the  following  adjectives:  Sec,  grec;  malin, 
marin;  aign,  perdu;  net,  complet;  vif,  royal,  fomnel. 

ffc  3.  Translate  and  write  in  full:  "16  July,  1878;  200  men  ;  220  men;  2,220  men;  80 
pounds;  84  pounds;} 2,000  pounds;  thousands  of  pounds."  Explain  the  rule  about 
vingt,  cent,  and  mille. 

4.  "Cherchait  a  atteindre"',  "je  le  vis  lever  la  tdte,  essayer  de  se  soulever."    Why  are 
these  verbs  in  the  infinitive  ?    State  the  rule,  or  rules. 

5.  "Le  brancard  que  1'on  avait place"";  "celui  qui  avait  cherche'";  "le  pauvre  soldat 
Gtaitmort".    With  what  part  of  the  sentence  do  the  participles  place",  cherche",  mart, 

State  the  rule  of  agreement  of  the  participle  conjugated  with  avoir. 


NOTE    F. 

Apportionment  of  naval  instructors,  midshipmen,  and  naval  cadets  among  sea-going  ships  and 

otherwise,  January  1,  1879. 


Ship  or  station. 

Description. 

Midshipmen. 

Naval  cadets. 

1 

P 

Naval  instructors. 

Monarch  

Iron,  screw  turret-ship  armor-plated  . 

11 

1 

12 

1 

Alexandra  

Iron,  double  screw,  armor-plated 

18 

1 

19 

1 

Temeraire  

do  

10 

1 

11 

1 

Shannon  
Bellerophon  

Iron,  screw,  armor-plated  
.do  

8 
11 

2 
3 

10 
14 

1 
1 

Iron,  double  screw,  armor-plated 

10 

10 

1 

do  .. 

10 

2 

12 

1 

Iron  Duke  -  -  

......do  

8 

5 

13 

1 

a 

2 

1 

do  

13 

4 

17 

1 

Achilles  

do  .. 

10 

3 

13 

1 

A  gincourt  

do  

8 

1 

9 

1 

do    

6 

4 

10 

1 

Pallas           .          

7 

7 

1 

Shah                 

8 

g 

1 

Kaleigh          

do 

10 

10 

1 

Boadicea  

Iron,  screw  corvette,  cased  in  wood  

9 

2 

11 

1 

do    

4 

3 

7 

1 

do    

4 

4 

1 

do  

3 

3 

1 

Iron,  screw  corvette 

4 

4 

1 

Screw  corvette  ..        

4 

4 

1 

do  

7 

1 

8 

1 

Diamond  

do  

2 

2 

1 

do  

2 

2 

1 

Opal    

do  

4 

4 

1 

Bubv   

do  .  . 

4 

4 

1 

Sapphire  

do  

2 

2 

1 

Tourmaline  

do  

4 

2 

6 

1 

Turquoise  ,  

do  

2 

2 

1 

Blanche  

do  

3 

3 

Danae  

do  

1 

1 

Spartan  

do  

1 

1 

1 

Britannia*  .... 

171 

171 

0 

Royal  Naval  College   

6 

Training-ships  for  Doys  

<i 

Chaplains  in  other  ships  . 

IS 

Unattached  

16 

9 

25 

7 

Total    

224 

217 

441 

71 

*  Exclusive  of  the  class  that  entered  in  the  preceding  November,  whose  admission  to  the  Britannia 
dated  from  January  15, 1879. 


EXAMINATION    FOR    LIEUTENANT GREENWICH.  249 

NOTE    G. 

EXAMINATION  PAPERS:  ROYAL  NAVAL  COLLEGE,  JUNE,  1878. 
EXAMINATION  FOR  RANK  OF  LIEUTENANT,  R.  N. 

I.— ALGEBRA. 
(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 
1.  («)  Simplify  the  fraction— 


(ft)  Resolve  the  expression  4a-2c3  —  (a-  +  e2  —  fr2)2  into  four  factors. 

2.  Prove  the  rule  for  finding  the  L.C.M.  of  two  algebraical  expressions. 
Find  the  L.C.M.  of 

6a*  —  a3&  —  3a2&2  f  3a&3  —  6*  and  9a<  —  3a3&  —  2a2&2  +  Safe3  —  b*. 

3.  Simplify  — — -j  —  ^jTT  +  #r+l  —  j^TT. 

4.  (a)  Explain  the  terms:  Surds,  surds  of  the  same  order. 

Express  as  surds  of  the  same  order  \/5  and  -^7. 

VSlSTT" 
(&)  Simplify  the  expression  •\/T6'  ~/l 

5.  Solve  the  equations — 


fce  +  T/a*  —  Ox  =  2c. 
(c)  x  -f  ay  +  a2z  =  a3  ^ 
x  +  fa/  -f  &%  =  63  ( 
x  -j-  c?/  +  c2^  =  c3  ) 

6.  A  railway  train  66  yards  long,  traveling  at  the  rate  of  50  miles  an  hour,  met 
another  train  traveling  at  the  rate  of  22  miles  an  hour,  which  it  passed  in  5  seconds. 
Find  the  length  of  the  second  train. 

7.  Solve  the  equations  — 

,  3z  —  11       2(a;  +  2)       2  . 
-  —     - 


._    — 

j/2       ic2  ~  9     ) 

8.  If  a  and  /?  are  the  roots  of  the  equation  ax*  +  bx  +  c  =  0,  find  the  value  of 

a*  +  r:2  /j'2  +  /?•*. 

9.  Explain  the  terms  :  Ratio,  Ratio  of  less  inequality. 

If  a  :  b  be  a  ratio  of  less  inequality,  and  x  a  positive  quantity,  show  that  the  ratio 
a  —  x  :  &  —  x  is  less  than  the  ratio  a  :  b. 

10.  (a)  Prove  that  the  ratio  of  the  sum  of  the  latter  half  of  2w  terms  of  any  arith- 
metical series  is  to  the  sum  of  3«  terms  of  the  same  series  as  1  to  3. 


(&)  Sum  the  series  -1-  —  4-  +  -f-  —  &c-  *°  ?  terms. 

11.  Having  given  two  numbers  and  the  difference  of  their  logarithms,  show  how 
the  base  of  the  system  may  be  determined. 
In  what  system  does  the  logarithm  of  40  exceed  that  of  5  by  3? 


250  NAVAL    EDUCATION — APPENDIX. 

II. — GEOMETRY. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Describe  an  equilateral  triangle  upon  a  given  finite  straight  line. 

If  a  second  equilateral  triangle  be  described  on  the  other  side  of  the  given  line, 
what  figure  will  the  two  triangles  form  ? 

2.  If  two  triangles  have  two  angles  of  the  one  equal  to  two  angles  of  the  other,  each 
to  each,  and  one  side  equal  to  one  side,  namely,  either  the  sides  adjacent  to  the  equal 
angles,  or  sides  which  are  opposite  to  equal  angles  in  each,  then  shall  the  other  sides 
be  equal,  each  to  each,  and  also  the  third  angle  of  the  one  equal  to  the  third  angle  of 
the  other. 

3.  The  complements  of  the  parallelograms,  which  are  about  the  diameter  of  any 
parallelogram,  are  eqtial  to  one  another. 

4.  On  the  sides  AB,  BC,  CD  of  a  parallelogram  are  described  equilateral  triangles 
ABE,  CDF  without  the  parallelogram  and  BCG  within  it ;  prove  that  EG,  FG  are 
equal  to  the  two  diagonals  respectively. 

5.  Describe  a  square  equal  to  a  given  rectilineal  figure. 

6.  Define  a  circle. 

If  two  circles  touch  one  another  internally,  the  straight  line  which  joins  their 
centers,  being  produced,  shall  pass  through  the  point  of  contact. 

7.  Define  the  segment  of  a  circle. 

On  a  given  straight  line  describe  a  segment  of  a  circle  containing  an  angle  equal 
to  a  given  rectilineal  angle. 

8.  In  a  given  circle,  inscribe  a  triangle  equiangular  to  a  given  triangle. 

If  the  inscribed  triangle  be  equilateral,  show  that  the  distance  of  any  point  in 
the  circumference  of  the  circle  from  the  most  remote  angle  of  the  triangle  is  equal  to 
the  sum  of  the  distances  from  the  other  angles. 

9.  Enunciate  the  axioms  of  Euclid's  Fifth  Book. 

Find  a  mean  proportional  between  two  given  straight  lines. 

10.  In  equal  circles,  angles,  whether  at  the  centers  or  circumferences,  have  the  same 
ratio  which  the  arcs  on  which  they  stand  have  to  one  another ;  so  also  have  the  sectors. 

Ill . — TRIGONOMETRY. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  What  'are  the  methods  of  measuring  angles  commonly  m'ade  use  of? 

If  the  radius  of  a  circle  be  20  feet,  find  to  four  places  of  decimals  the  length  of  the 
arc  subtending  an  angle  of  7°  at  the  center  of  the  circle. 

2.  Trace  the  changes  in  the  sign  and  magnitude  of  the  fraction          .„  as  6  varies 

cos  2f> 

from  0  to  5. 
2 

3.  Prove  that  cos  (A  +  B)  =  cos  A  cos  B  —  sin  A  sin  B. 
Apply  this  formula  to  find  the  value  of  cos  135°. 

4.  Solve  the  equations — 

(a)  Tan  20  —  3  cot  "6  =  j  sec  20. 

£ 

(6)  Cos-1  ^+  sec-1  x  =  ?. 
2  4 

5.  Prove  the  identities — 

(a)  Sin  A  (1  -f-  tan  A)  +  cos  A  (1  +  cot  A)  =  sec  A  -j-  cosec  A. 

j^ 

(6)  CosAH-smC^sin  B  =  n_«"when  A  +  B  +  C  =  90°. 

Cos  B  +  sin  C  —  sin  A      ...   ,       B_ 

5" 

6.  Investigate  a  formula  giving  the  value  of  the  sine  of  half  an  angle  of  a'plane 
triangle  in  terms  of  the  sides. 


EXAMINATION    FOR    LIEUTENANT  —  GREENWICH.  251 

7.  The  area  of  a  quadrilateral  figure  ABCD  is  9,688  square  yards.     AB  is  110  yards, 
BC  91  yards,  AC  125  yards,  and  CD  82  yards.     Find  the  side  AD. 

8.  If  in  the  plane  triangle  ABC  the  angle  A  be  three  times  the  angle  B,  prove  that  — 


9.  Find  an  expression  for  the  value  of  the  cosine  of  an  angle  of  a  spherical  triangle 
in  terms  of  functions  of  the  sides,  and  thence  the  cosine  of  a  side  in  terms  of  functions 
of  the  angles. 

10.  If  a,  b,  c,  be  the  sides  of  a  spherical  triangle,  and  if  the  arc  6  be  drawn  from  the 
angle  A  to  bisect  the  side  a,  show  that  — 

a  &  -I-  c        &  —  v 

cos  ,  cos  o  =  cos  —  !^-  cos  -  . 

lit  ti  lit 

11.  In  the  spherical  triangle  ABC,  given  a  =  90°,  &  =  71°  39',  and  A  =  104°  15'  30", 
find  the  remaining  parts. 

IV.  —  MECHANICS  AND  HYDROSTATICS. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Assuming  the  Parallelogram  of  Forces,  so  far  as  the  direction  of  the  Resultant  is 
concerned,  prove  it  for  the  magnitude  of  the  Resultant. 

Show  that  if  the  angle  at  which  two  forces  are  inclined  to  each  other  be  increased, 
their  resultant  is  diminished. 

2.  If  two  forces  be  inclined  to  one  another  at  an  angle  of  150°,  find  the  ratio  be- 
tween them  when  the  resultant  is  equal  to  the  smaller  force. 

3.  Explain  the  term  :  Center  of  Parallel  Forces. 

Prove  that  if  three  forces,  acting  on  a  rigid  body,  balance  each  other,  the  lines  in 
which  they  act  must  either  be  parallel  or  must  pass  through  a  point. 

4.  A  uniform  lever  of  the  first  kind  is  12  feet  in  length.     A  weight  of  50  Ibs.  is  sus- 
pended from  each  extremity  in  turn,  and  it  is  found  that  weights  of  20  Ibs.  and  110 
Ibs.  are  required  at  the  other  extremities  to  preserve  equilibrium.     Determine  the 
weight  of  the  lever  and  the  position  of  the  fulcrum. 

5.  The  ninth  part  of  the  area  of  a  triangle  is  cut  off  by  a  line  parallel  to  the  base. 
Find  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  remaining  area. 

6.  Investigate  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  for  the  single  movable  piilley  when  the- 
parts  of  the  string  are  not  parallel. 

A  cord  fastened  at  A  passes  under  a  movable  pulley  bearing  a  weight,  P  ;  it  then 
passes  over  a  fixed  pulley  at  B,  and  under  a  second  movable  pulley  bearing  a  weight, 
Q,  and  is  fastened  to  a  peg  at  C.  Find  the  tension  of  the  cord  when  the  angle  at  one 
of  the  movable  pulleys  is  double  that  at  the  other,  P  being  greater  than  Q. 

7.  Define  velocity,  distinguishing  between  uniform  and  variable  velocity. 

If  2  seconds  be  the  unit  of  time  and  an  acre  be  represented  by  40,  what  is  the 
measure  of  a  velocity  of  30  miles  an  hour? 

8.  A  body  projected  up  a  smooth  plane,  with  a  velocity  of  320  feet  per  second,  returned 
to  the  foot  of  the  plane  in  30  seconds.     How  high  did  it  ascend,  and  what  was  the 
inclination  of  the  plane  to  the  horizon  ? 

9.  If  a  circle  be  placed  in  a  vertical  plane,  determine  the  cord  passing  through 
the  lowest  point,  down  which  a  body  must  fall  so  that  it  may  acquire  the  greatest 
horizontal  velocity  at  the  bottom. 

10.  Distinguish  between  the  terms  :  "  Fluid  pressure  at  a  point  "  and  "  Fluid  pressure 
on  a  point." 

An  area  of  1£  square  feet  is  subject  to  a  uniform  fluid  pressure  of  2,568  Ibs.  Deter- 
mine the  measure  of  the  pressure  at  any  point  when  the  unit  of  length  is  \  inch. 

11.  Describe  the  Hydrostatic  Balance,  and  show  how  it  maybe  used  to  compare  the 
specific  gravities  of  a  solid  and  a  fluid,  the  solid  being  of  less  specific  gravity  than 
the  fluid. 


252  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

12.  What  must  be  the  .weight  of  a  mass  of  silver  (sp.  gr.  10.5)  which,  when  weighed 
in  a  fluid  of  specific  gravity  4.5,  appears  to  weigh  the  same  as  a  mass  of  lead  (sp.  gr. 
11.4)  the  weight  of  which  in  vacuo  is  15  Ibs.  ? 

v. — PHYSICS. 
(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Give  a  diagram  of  a  common  pump,  and  show  how  the  height  of  the  barometer 
influences  the  limit  of  its  action. 

2.  Give  an  account  of  the  phenomena  of  capillary  action,  and  describe  the  different 
ways  in  which  it  manifests  iiself  in  a  water  and  a  mercury  barometer. 

3.  Describe  Nicholson's  Hydrometer. 

A  liquid  is  known  to  consist  of  water  and  alcohol ;  explain  how  a  Nicholson's  Hy- 
drometer could  be  used  to  determine  the  proportions  in  which  they  are  mixed. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  magnetic  induction  ?    Explain  the  statement  that  repulsion  is 
a  surer  test  of  magnetization  than  attraction,  and  show  that  it  is  possible  for  one  end 
of  an  iron  bar  under  certain  circumstances  neither  to  attract  nor  repel  the  red  pole  of 
a  magnet  brought  near  to  it. 

5.  What  are  meant  by  the  lines  of  force  in  a  magnetic  field  ?    In  what  directions  do 
the  lines  of  force  of  the  terrestrial  magnetism  pass  through  the  magnetic  equator  ? 

6.  Distinguish  between  the  temperature  of  a  body  and  the  quantity  of  heat  which 
it  contains. 

If  m  Ibs.  of  one  body  and  n  Ibs.  of  another  rise  respectively  p  degrees  and  q  degrees 
in  temperature  on  the  addition  of  the  same  quantity  of  heat  to  each,  compare  their 
specific  heats. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  hygrometric  state  of  the  air  ? 

Explain  the  significance  of  the  indications  of  the  wet  and  dry  bulb  thermometers. 

8.  A  ray  of  light  passes  from  one  medium  to  another ;  explain  by  what  law  the 
change  in  its  direction  is  governed. 

A  ray  of  light  falls  on  one  surface  of  a  triangular  glass  prism,  is  totally  reflected  at 
the  second,  and  emerges  from  the  third  face.  Draw  a  diagram  showing  the  course  of 
the  ray. 

9.  Distinguish  between  a  virtual  and  a  real  image  formed  by  a  lens. 

A  large  convex  lens  is  used  as  a  reading  glass  in  the  ordinary  way ;  explain  with  a 
diagram  the  formation  of  the  magnified  image. 

VI.— STEAM  ENGINE. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Water  of  98°  F.  is  under  the  atmospheric  pressure.     How  many  units  of  heat 
will  be  required  to  raise  one  pound  of  it  to  the  boiling  point,  and  how  many  more 
units  to  evaporate  nine-tenths  of  a  pound  ? 

If  the  pressure  to  which  it  is  subjected  is  2  atmospheres,  of  which  the  corre- 
sponding temperature  is  249°  F.,  how  much  heat  will  be  required  to  make  it  boil,  and 
how  much  more  to  evaporate  the  whole  of  it  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  an  indicated  liorae-poiver ? 

If  the  volume  of  a  pound  of  steam  under  a  pressure  of  30  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  is  13£  cubic 
feet,  how  many  foot-pounds  of  external  work  is  done  during  its  formation  from  water 
under  this  pressure  ;  and  how  many  pounds  of  steam  will  be  required  per  hour  to  de- 
velop one  indicated  horse-power  ? 

3.  Give  a  short  description  of  coal,  stating  what  its  great  calorific  value  is  due  to. 

4.  Describe  the  indicator,  and  how  it  is  used. 

5.  How  much  salt  does  ordinary  sea-water  contain  ?    At  what  density  should  the 
water  in  the  boiler  be  kept  ?    Describe  how  the  density  of  the  boiler  water  is  de- 
termined, and  how  it  is  kept  from  becoming  too  great. 


EXAMINATION    FOR    LIEUTENANT GREENWICH.  253 

6.  Draw  a  section  of  a  marine  boiler,  and  insert  in,  or  point  out  on,  the  drawing,  the 
following  parts  : 

Combustion  chamber, 

Fire  bridge, 

A  stay  tube, 

An  ordinary  stay, 

Damper  door  (half  open),  and 

The  smoke-consuming  apparatus. 

7.  Describe  the  action  of  the  slide  valve  in  admitting  and  cutting  off  the  steam, 
explaining  what  is  meant  by  the  terms  lead  and  cushioning. 

8.  Describe  either  a  jet  condenser  or  a  surface  condenser,  showing  how  the  vacuum 
is  maintained,  and  mention  the  temperature  and  pressure  when  in  good  working 
order. 

9.  Describe  the  arrangements  by  which  the  piston  works  steam  tight  in  the  cylinder 
and  the  pislon  rod  in  the  cylinder  end. 

10.  Describe  the  principal  action  of  the  screw  propeller  on  the  water,  to  which  the 
onward  motion  of  the  ship  is  due. 

At  how  many  revolutions  per  minute  must  a  screw  propeller  of  20  feet  pitch  be 
driven  that  the  speed  of  the  ship  may  be  12  knots  an  hour,  supposing  the  slip  to  be 
8  per  cent  ? 

VII.— FRENCH. 

(Time  allowed,  2  hours. ) 
(Dictionaries  are  permitted,  except  for  the  grammatical  questions.) 

I.  Translate  into  French  : 

Learning,  on  its  revival,  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  the  English  princes  and 
nobles.  The  four  successive  sovereigns,  Henry,  Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  may 
be  admitted  into  the  class  of  authors.  Queen  Catherine  Parr  translated  a  book  ; 
Lady  Jane  Grey,  considering  her  age,  her  sex,  and  her  station,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
prodigy  of  literature.  Queen  Elizabeth  wrote  and  translated  several  books,  and  was 
familiarly  acquainted  with  the  Greek  as  well  as  Latin  tongue.  It  is  pretended  that 
she  made  an  extemporary  reply  in  Greek  to  the  University  of  Cambridge,  who  had  ad- 
dressed her  in  that  language.  It  is  certain  that  she  answered  in  Latin  without  pre- 
meditation, and  in  a  very  spirited  manner,  to  the  Polish  ambassador,  who  had  been 
wanting  in  respect  to  her.  When  she  had  finished,  she  turned  about  to  her  courtiers 
and  said,  "S'death,  my  Lords,"  (for  she  was  much  addicted  to  swearing,)  "I  have 
been  obliged  to  scour  up  my  old  Latin,  that  hath  long  lain  rusting." — HUME. 

II.  Translate  into  English : 

Science  et  travail. 

"Le  monde  appartient  a  l'e"nergie,"  disait  Alexis  de  Tocqueville,  "il  n'yajamais 
d'e"poque  dans  la  vie  oii  1'on  puisse  se  reposer;  1'effort  au  dehors  de  soi,  et  plus  encore 
an  dedans  de  soi,  est  aussi  n6cessaire  et  mfime  bien  plus  ne"cessaire  a  mesure  qu'on 
vieillit  que  dans  la  jeunesse.  Je  compare  1'homme  en  ce  moude  a  un  voyageur  qui 
marche  sans  cesse  vers  une  region  de  plus  en  plus  froide,  et  qui  est  oblige"  de  remuer 
da  vantage  a  mesure  qn'il  va  plus  loin.  La  grande  maladie  de  I'ame,  c'est  le  froid. 
Et  pour  combattre  ce  mal  redoutable,  il  faut,  nou  seulement  entretenir  le  mouvement 
vif  de  son  esprit  par  le  travail,  mais  encore  par  le  contact  de  ses  semblables  et  des 
affaires  de  ce  monde."  L'exemple  personnel  de  1'auteur  de  ces  paroles  vient  a  lenr 
appui  et  le  confirme.  Au  milieu  de  ses  grands  travaux  il  perdit  la  vue,  puis  la  saute", 
mais  jamais  il  ne  perdit  1'amour  de  la  ve"rit6.  Lorsqu'il  fut  r6duit  a  un  tel  e"tat  de 
faiblesse  qn'il  fallait  qu'une  garde-malade  le  portat  dans  ses  bras  de  chambre  en 
chambre,  comme  un  frSle  enfant,  son  courage  ne  I'abaudouna  pas. — FLAMMARIOX. 


254 


NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 


III.  GRAMMAR: 

1.  Give  the  present  subj.,  2d  pers.  sing,  and  plural,  of  the  verbs  appartient,  puisse, 
vieillit,  oblige,  va,  combattre,  faut.     Give  also  the  present  and  past  participle  of  each  of 
those  verbs. 

2.  Form  negative  sentences  with  the  following :  "  Le  monde  appartient » l'6uergie  " ; 
11  C'est  le  froid" ;  and  state  the  rule  for  the  formation  of  negative  sentences. 

3.  "Un  voyageur."     Give  the  feminine  form  of  that  word;  also  of.  tuteur,  auteur, 
voleur,  buveur,  mineur,  vengeur. 

4.  "Qui  est  oblige"":  with  which  part  of  the  sentence  does  the  participle  oblige" 
agree  ?    State  the  rules. 

VIII. — PRACTICAL  NAVIGATION. 

(Time  allowed,  1  hour.) 
1.  Required  the  compass  course  and  distance  from  A  to  B : 


Lat.  A 41°  56' 

B..       .  29°  52' 


;Var.  If  pts.  W. 


Long.  A 43°  27' 

B...      .   18°  56' 


2.  May  29,  1878,  at  noon,  a  point  of  laud  in  lat.  51°  26'  S.  and  long.  47°  28'  E.  bore 
by  compass  NW.  by  W.,  distant  17  miles  (ship's  head  being  SE.),*  afterwards  sailed 
as  by  the  following  log  account;  find  the  latitude  and  longitude  in  on  May  30th  at 
noon: 


H. 

K. 

Aths. 

Course. 

Wind. 

• 

Leeway. 

Remarks. 

1 

7 

5 

SE. 

NW.byN. 

2 

8 

0 

3 

8 

5 

4 

9 

0 

5 

11 

5 

N.JW. 

W. 

i 

6 

12 

0 

7 

13 

5 

Variation  of  compass,  2|  pts.  "W. 

8 

14 

0 

9 

9 

0 

10 

10 

5 

11 

11 

5 

E.  by  N.  J  N. 

SE. 

i 

12 

7 

0 

1 

5 

5 

2 

3 

0 

3 

9 

0 

4 

7 

5 

W. 

NW.  by  N. 

1 

5 

6 

0 

6 

12 

0 

7 

14 

5 

8 

8 

5 

9 

7 

5 

SE.  by  E.  i  E. 

NE. 

1 

10 

6 

0 

11 

7 

0 

12 

3 

0 

3.  What  stars  of  the  first  and  second  magnitudes  will  pass  the  meridian  of  a  place 
in  long.  117°  E.,  between  the  hours  of  llh  p.  m.  October  8  and  lb  20m  a.  in.  October  9? 

4.  September  27,  1878,  in  long.  101°  E.  the  observed  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun's 
L.L.  was  47°  26'  50"  (zenith  S.  of  the  sun),  the  index  correction  was  -f-  2'  40",  and  the 
height  of  the  eye  above  the  sea  was  15  feet ;  required  the  latitude. 

5.  April  20,  1878,  in  long.  56°  30'  W.,  the  observed  meridian  altitude  of  the  moon's 
L.L.  below  Pole  was  18Q  26'  30",  the  index  correction  was  — 2'  40",  and  the  height  of 
the  eye  above  the  sea  was  18  feet ;  required  the  latitude. 

6.  April  7, 1878,  in  lat.  24°  S.,  long.  39°  26'  W.,  when  a  chronometer  showed  31'  44m  1s, 
the  observed  altitude  of  the  sun'd  L.L.  (near  the  meridian)  was  58°  54'  20",  the  height 
of  eye  above  the  sea  23  feet,  the  index  correction  was  +  0'  50",  and'  the  error  of 
chronometer  fast  on  G.M.T.  lh  17™  49s ;  required  the  latitude. 


1  See  table  of  deviations. 


EXAMINATION    FOR    LIEUTENANT GREENWICH. 


255 


7.  September  18, 1878,  iu  lat.  by  account  35°  S.,  the  following  double  altitude  of 
Altair  was  observed : 

Time  by  chron.  Obs.  alt.  L.L.  Bearing. 

7h  8»>  14s  12°  51'  20"  E.  by  N.  f  N. 

llh  3m  25s  450  42'  13//  N.  by  E. 

The  run  of  the  ship  in  the  interval  was  N.  ^  W.  15  miles,  the  index  correction  +  2' 
10",  and  the  height  of  the  eye  22  feet ;  required  the  true  latitude  at  the  last  observation. 

8.  January  2,  1878,  at  10h  5m  p.  m.  (mean  time  nearly),  in  lat.  48°  2'  N.  and  long. 
133°  W.,  when  a  chronometer  showed  4h  141U  13s,  the  observed  altitude  of  the  planet 
Mars,  W.  of  mer.,  was  22°  51'  30",  the  index  correction  was  — 0'  20",  and  the  height 
of  the  eye  above  the  sea  was  28  feet;  required  the  longitude. 

On  November  26,  1877,  at  noon,  the  chron.  was  slow  on  G.M.T.  2h  45m  15s,  and  its 
daily  rate  was  3.4  seconds  gaining. 

9.  July  7,  1878,  at  3h  30'"  p.  in.,  in  lat.  43°  46'  N.  and  long.  141°  W.,  the  following 
lunar  was  taken : 

Obs.  alt.  sun's  L.L.  Obs.  alt.  moon's  L.L.  Obs.  dist.  N.L. 

42°  57'    7"  18°  58'  57"  99°  10'  55" 

Index  error     —  4'  20"  -f-  2'  20"  +  3'  30" 

The  height  of  the  eye  above  the  sea  was  21  feet ;  required  the  longitude. 

10.  October  30,  1878,  about  5h  25ra  p.  m.,  in  latitude  31°  20'  N.,  longitude  107°  W., 
the  sun  set  by  compass  W.  16°  20'  S.,  the  ship's  head  being  west ;  required  the  varia- 
tion of  the  compass. 

11.  December  2,  1878,  about  8h  25m  a.  m.  mean  time,  ill  lat.  22°  21'  S.,  long.  43°  12' 
W.,  the  sun  bore  by  compass  S.  57°  20'  E.,  when  a  chronometer  showed  9h  16ra  12s. 
The  error  of  the  chronometer  slow  on  G.M.T.  was  lh  59m  26s,  and  the  ship's  -head 
WSW. ;  required  the  variation  of  the  compass. 

Deviation  of  the  compass  (caused  by  the  local  attraction  of  the  ship)  for  given  positions  of 

the  ship's  head. 


Direction  of  ship's  head. 

Deviation  of  compass. 

Direction  of  ship's  head. 

Deviation  of  compass. 

N. 

2°  45'  E. 

S. 

3°    0'  "W". 

N.  by  E. 

NtfE. 

4    57 
7    30 

S.  by  W. 

ssw. 

4    20 
5      0 

NE.  by  N. 

9      0 

SW.  by  S. 

6      7 

NE. 

10      0 

SW. 

7      0 

NE  by  E. 

10    55 

SW.  by  W. 

7    27 

ENE. 

10    40 

WSW. 

7    50 

E.  by  N. 
E'. 

9    55 
8    50 

W.  by  S. 

8    20 
8    50 

E.  by  S. 

7    15 

W.  by  N. 

8     10 

ESE. 

5    35 

wtfw. 

6    50 

SE.  byE. 

3    40 

NW.  by  W. 

5    40 

BE. 

1    50 

NW. 

4    50 

SE.  by  S. 

0    20  E. 

NW.  by  N. 

3    20 

SSE. 

0    56  W. 

NNW. 

1    40  W. 

S.  by  E. 

2    20 

N.  by  W. 

1     10  E. 

Answers  to  navigation. 

1.  S.  40°  E.;  1390  in. 

2.  Lat.  in  50°  52'  S. ;  long,  in  48°  11'  E. 

3.  From  3  Ceti  to  a  Arietis. 

4.  Lat.  43°  53'  S. 

5.  Lat.  82°  7'  S. 

6.  Lat.  23°  48'  S. 

7.  Lat.  35°  1'  S. 

8.  Long.  133°  8'  W. 

9.  Long.  141°  18'  W. 

10.  Var.  8°  42'  E. 

11.  Var.  14°  fig'  W. 


256  NAVAL  EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

IX. — THEORY  OF   NAVIGATION   AND   NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY. 
(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Define,  giving  diagrams,  the  terms:  Axis  of  the  Earth,  Departure,  True  Zenith, 
Ecliptic,  Latitude  and  Longitude  of  a  Heavenly  Body. 

Show  that  if  the  declination  of  a  star  be  equal  to  its  longitude,  its  latitude  must  be 
equal  to  its  Eight  Ascension. 

2.  Investigate  a  formula  connecting  Diff.  Long.,  Mer.  Diff.  Lat.  and  Course. 

3.  Explain  the  terms :  First  Point  of  Aries,  Sidereal  Time. 

The  time  of  transit  of  the  first  point  of  Aries,  given  in  the  Nautical  Almanac  for 
July  4,  is  17h  7m  44.1s;  find  the  right  ascension  of  the  mean  sun  at  Greenwich  mean 
noon  on  July  5. 

4.  What  should  be  the  length  of  the  knot  on  the  log-line  to  correspond  to  a  33-sec- 
ond  glass  ? 

If  the  distance  entered  in  the  log  was  13")  miles,  the  actual  distance  sailed  being  118 
miles,  find  the  length  of  knob  used. 

5.  Show  how  to  find  the  latitude  by  altitude  of  a  heavenly  body  near  the  meridian 
below  pole,  having  given  the  approximate  latitude. 

Give  approximately  the  limits  of  latitude  in  which  this  observation  is  possible  in 
the  case  of  the  moon. 

6.  (a.)  Define  the  term  Polar  Angle,  used  in  a  double  altitude  observation. 

In  a  double  altitude  of  a  planet,  the  elapsed  time,  as  measured  by  a  chronometer 
keeping  mean  time,  was  3h  56m  30s,  and  the  decrease  of  the  planet's  right  ascension  in 
the  interval  was  31.5  seconds.  Required  the  polar  angle. 

(6.)  Prove  the  rule  for  finding  the  index  error  of  a  sextant  by  measuring  the 
sun's  diameter  on  and  off  the  arc. 

7.  At  a  certain  place  the  sun's  altitude  at  6  o'clock  was  11°  50',  and  his  azimuth  N. 
85°  30'  W.     Required  the  declination  and  latitude  of  the  place. 

8.  A  ship  sailed  from  A  to  B,  a  place  to  the  westward,  on  the  arc  of  a  great  circle, 
the  distance  being  6,150  miles.     Find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  B,  having  given 
the  latitude  of  A,  57°  58'  S.,  longitude  of  A,  17?  39'  E.,  and  latitude  of  the  vertex  61° 
54'. 

9.  Calculate  the  augmentation  of  the  moon's  semi-diameter,  when  the  apparent  alti- 
tude of  the  center  is  30°  46',  the  horizontal  parallax  being  56'  10",  and  the  horizontal 
semi-diameter  16'  5". 

10.  What  is  the  sun's  declination  when  the  day  is  3  hours  longer  in  latitude  55° 
than  in  latitude  15°? 

X. — WINDS  AND   CURRENTS. 
(Time  allowed,  2  hours.) 

1.  Explain  in  detail  how  the  northern  hemisphere  is  divided  into  distinct  basins  by 
the  several  ranges  of  mountains  upon  its  surface. 

2.  Give  an  account  of  the  winds  which  prevail  (1)  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  (2)  on  the 
west  coast  of  Australia. 

3.  Give  an  account  of  the  monsoons  of  the  China  seas. 

The  interior  of  China  is  but  little  known,  but  it  is  considered  probable  that  the  mon- 
soons prevail  over  a  great  part  of  the  Chinese  continent.  What  reasons  may  be  ad- 
duced in  support  of  this  theory  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  West  Indian  hurricane  ? 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  path  of  these  storms  coincides  for  some  distance  with 
the  course  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  How  has  this  been  explained  ? 

5.  Describe  the  Cape  St.  Roque  current.     What  remarks  have  been  made  by  Maury 
and  by  Horsburgh,  respectively,  relative  to  this  current  ? 

6.  What  currents  have  been  noticed  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago?    What  bearing  lias 


EXAMINATION  PAPERS GREENWICH.  257 

the  existence  of  such  currents  upon  the  theory  of  ocean  currents  based  upon  the  effects 
of  excessive  evaporation  ? 

7.  Give  an  account  of  the  system  of  currents  of  the  South  Pacific  Ocean. 

8.  Explain  the  agency  of  currents  in  causing  (1)  the  fo^s  of  Newfoundland,  (2)  the 
heavy  sea  found  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

XI. — NAUTICAL  SURVEYING. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours.) 

1.  Construct  a  Mercator's  chart  on  a  scale  of  1.15  ins.  =  to  a  degree  of  longitude,  ex- 
tending from  lat.  54°  to  58°  N.,  and  long.  32°  to  37°  E. 

A  ship  sailed  from  lat.  56°  25'  N.,  long.  32°  10'  E.,  as  follows : 

Mag.  courses.  Dist. 

SW.  by  S 60'^ 

SE.  byE.  |E 115'  | 

NNE.  iE 120'  >  Variation  33°  W. 

NW.  i  W 55' 

SW 95'J 

Required  lat.  and  long,  arrived  at. 

2.  Chron1  slow  on  mean  time,  Montevideo  (long.  56°  10'  W.),  lh  14m  14s,  daily  rate 
losing  ls.8  —  fourteen  days  afterwards  at  sea. 

Summit  of  Tristan  d'Acunha  in  lat.  37°  17'  S.,  long.  12°  36'  W.,  bore  N.  38°  E.  (true), 
distant  5  miles,  when  chronr  was  slow  on  mean  time  ship  4h  09m  0s. 
How  much  had  the  rate  changed  ? 

3.  A,  S,  C  are  in  line  on  an  E.  by  N.  bearing.     B  in  the  center  is  equidistant  from 
A  and  C  1.5  miles.    Variation  10°  easterly. 

•    At  ship. 

A  48°  30'  B  50°  15'  C. 
Protract  on  scale  of  1.5  ins.  =  a  mile,  and  fix  ship's  position. 

4.  At  Y,  X  was  elevated  7°  12' ;  at  X,  Z  was  elevated  2°  12'. 

Horizontal  distance  between  Fand  X=  1,350  feet. 
Horizontal  distance  between  X  and  Z=     980  feet. 
Required  the  height  in  feet  of  Z  above  Y. 

5.  By  means  of  ruler  and  compasses  construct  a  compass  having  a  diameter  of  6 
inches,  marked  to  half  points,  and  the  variation  being  one  point  westerly,  show  the 
direction  of  the  magnetic  meridian. 


EXAMINATION  PAPERS :  BEAUFORT  TESTIMONIAL. 

I . — MATHEMATICS. 

(Time  allowed,  3  hours. ) 

1.  If  y  be  the  harmonic  mean  between  x  and  0,  and  x  and  z  respectively  the  arith- 
metical and  geometrical  means  between  a  and  &,  prove  that 


(OMSff 


2.  Find  an  expression  for  the  number  of  combinations  of  n  things  taken  r  at  a  time. 
There  are  10  white  and  6  red  balls  in  a  bag ;  in  how  many  different  ways  may  6  balls 

be  drawn  out,  so  that  there  may  be  at  least  2  red  balls  each  time  ? 

3.  The  sides  about  the  vertical  angle  of  a  triangle  are  25  and  16,  and  the  line  bisect" 
ing  the  vertical  angle  is  12.     Find  the  base. 

4.  Investigate  an  expression  for  the  radius  of  a  circle  inscribed  in  a  triangle. 

If  a,  ft,  y  be  the  angles  "which  the  sides  of  a  triangle  subtend  at  the  center  of  the 
inscribed  circle,  show  that 

4  sin  a  sin  ft  sin  y  =  sin  A  +  sin  B  -f  sin  C. 
S.  Ex.  51 17  ' 


258  NAVAL    EDUCATION  -  APPENDIX. 

5.  ABC,  ABD  aje  two  spherical  triangles  such  that  AC  -f  CB  =  AD  +  DB  ;  if  O  he 
the  middle  point  of  AB,  show  that 

BC  —  AC 


cos  DO  ~     ~~Ai)  —  BD 

cos  -  3— 

6.  Investigate  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  when  a  weight  W  is  supported  on  a 
rough  plane  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  an  angle  a,  by  a  power  P  inclined  to  the  plane 
at  an  angle  ft,  n  being  the  coefficient  of  friction. 

7.  One  ball  impinges  on  another  ball  at  rest  ;  find  the  condition  in  order  that  after 
impact  their  directions  of  motion  may  be  at  right  angles,  e  being  the  coefficient  of 
elasticity. 

8.  A  cylinder  is  filled  with  equal  volumes  of  n  different  fluids  which  do  not  mix  ;  the 
density  of  the  uppermost  is  p,  that  of  the  second  2p,  and  so  on,  that  of  the  lowest 
being  np  ;  show  that  the  whole  pressures  on  the  different  portions  of  the  curved  sur- 
face of  the  cylinder  are  in  the  ratio 

I2  :  22  :  32  ----  :  ?i2. 

II.  —  NAUTICAL   SURVEYING. 

(Time  allowed,  1|  hours.) 

In  a  running  survey  of  part  of  a  river,  landed  on  the  east  bank  from  gunboat  lying 
at  anchor. 
At  Dead  Tree  sextant  station.     Height  of  eye  above  river  5  feet. 

Lat.  4°  40'  N.,  long.  108°  30'  E.  (by  observation)  : 
Gunboat's  main  truck  .................................................  N.  56C  30'  W. 

Gunboat's  main  truck  elevated  above  mark  on  hull  level  with  eye  ...........  1°  43'  6 

Pagoda,  143°  30'.     Gunboat's  mainmast. 

After  which  gunboat  weighed  and  proceeded  as  follows  : 

Mag.  course.  Dist.  by  pat.  log.  Time  on  course. 

S.  45°  W.  4'  .9  1"  30m 

S.  80°  E.  3'  .15  lh 

S.  17°  W.  5'  .06  lh  42m 

S.  48°  E.  2'  .92  Oh  45™ 

Then  anchored  a  second  time,  observing  on  the  south  bank. 
At  Lime  Kiln  sextant  station.     Height  of  eye  above  river  5  feet. 

Lat  4°  31'  N.,  long.  108°  32'  E.  (by  observation)  : 
Gunboat's  main  truck  at  second  anchorage  in  line  with  Pagoda  .....  .  .......  N.  45°  E. 

Main  truck  elevated  above  mark  on  hull  level  with  eye  ....................  2°  8'  51" 

Pagoda  elevated  above  same  mark  .................  .  ......................  0°40'  38" 

Main  truck  to  water  line  95  feet.  Bearings  magnetic.  Var.  9°  W.  Current  against 
the  gunboat  throughout  1.2  knots  an  hour.  Error  of  Pat.  Log.  one  cable  additive  to 
each  mile  it  indicates. 

Protract  dead  reckoning  track  of  gunboat  on  scale  of  one  inch  =  mile  of  2,000  yards. 
On  separate  paper  and  same  scale  plot  positions  of  sextant  stations,  anchorages, 
and  pagoda  (plane  projection);  ruling  true  and  magnetic  meridians. 

Transfer  the  dead  reckoning  track  to  fit  in  between  positions  found  by  observation, 
so  as  to  eliminate  as  far  as  practicable  any  error  that  may  have  crept  iu  to  the  dead 
reckoning  which  cannot  be  accounted  for. 

Track  about  mid-channel.     Eiver  a  mile  wide,  with  swampy  banks.     Pagoda  on 
hill  having  trees  around. 
Sketch  in  details.     Mark  current.     Give  height  of  Pagoda  above  river's  surface. 


EXAMINATION  PAPEES GREENWICH.  259 

III.— FRENCH. 
(Time  allowed,  1£  hours.) 

I.  Translate  into  French  : 

St.  Paul  at  Athens. 

At  Athens,  at  once  the  center  anil  capital  of  the  Greek  philosophy  and  heathen 
superstition,  takes  place  the  first  public  and  direct  conflict  between  Christianity  and 
Paganism.  Up  to  this  time  there  is  no  account  of  any  one  of  the  apostles  taking  his 
station  in  the  public  street  or  market-place  and  addressing  the  general  multitude. 
Their  place  of  teaching  had  invariably  been  the  synagogue  of  their  nation,  or,  as  at 
Philippi,  the  neighborhood  of  their  customary  place  of  worship.  Here,  however,  Paul 
does  not  confine  himself  to  the  synagogue,  or  to  the  society  of  his  countrymen  and 
their  proselytes.  He  takes  his  stand  in  the  public  market-place  (probably  not  the 
Ceramicus,  but  the  Eretriac  Forum),  which,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  had  begun  to 
be  more  frequented,  and  at  the  top  of  which  was  the  famous  portico  from  which  the 
Stoics  assumed  their  name.  In  Athens,  the  appearance  of  a  new  public  teacher,  in- 
stead of  offending  the  popular  feelings,  was  too  familiar  to  excite  astonishment,  and 
was  rather  welcomed  as  promising  some  fresh  intellectual  excitement.  In  Athens, 
hospitable  to  all  religions  and  all  opinions,  the  foreign  and  Asiatic  appearance,  and 
possibly  the  less  polished  tone  and  dialect  of  Paul,  would  only  awaken  the  stronger 
curiosity. 

II.  IDIOM  : 

1.  Translate  or  explain  :  "  Je  nepuism'en  passer";  "cela  me  passe";  "passezvotre 
chemin";  "  il  ne  m'a  pas  pay6  de  retour";  "mettez  vous  en  mesure  "  ;  "vousu'etes 
pas  en  mesure  "  ;  "  vous  chantez  faux  "  ;  "  nous  avons  Iev6  Fancre." 

2.  Render  into  French  :  '"  Mind  what  you  are  about "  ;  "  my  son  is  not  yet  of  age" ; 
"inind  your  business";  "rich  as  you  are  you  will  not  succeed";  "you  shall  have  it, 
at  a  bargain," 

3.  State  the  difference  between  plutot  and  phis  tot,  dessin  and  dessein,  vcille,  vieille, 
vielle. 

III.  GRAMMAR  : 

1.  Give  the  present  subjunctive,  second  person  singular  and  plural,  of  each  of  the 
following  verbs,  enlever,  noyer,  jeter,  appeler,  peler,  voir,  savoir,  mouvoir. 

2.  State  the  rule  of  formation  of  the  plural  of  compound  nouns,  taking  as  instances,. 
chou-fleur,  grand'mere,  sauf-conduit,  chef-d'oeuvre,  tete-a-tete,  Mtel-Dieu,  contre-danse,  ar- 
riere-garde,  sans  souci,  sans-culotte,  porte-voix,  porte-feuille. 

3.  State  the  rule  of  agreement  of  the  past  participle  in  the  reflective  verbs.     Give 
instances. 

IV. — NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY,  «tC. 

(Time  allowed,  2  hours.) 

1.  On  May  20,  1878,  in  latitude  30°  53'  N.,  long.  77°  2'  W.,  the  sun  had  equal  alti- 
tudes at  the  following  times  by  chronometer : 

A.  M.  P.  M. 

3h  18™  7.5s.  10h  28m  22.5s. 

Required  the  error  of  the  chronometer  on  G.M.T.  at  noon  on  May  20th. 

2.  Explain  the  causes  of  twilight. 

Investigate  an  expression  for  finding  the  sun's  declination  at  a  given  place,  on  the 
day  when  the  twilight  is  shortest. 

3.  The  sun's  declination  being  10°  12'  N.,  find  the  latitude  of  the  place  where  it 
reaches  the  prime  vertical,  when  two-thirds  of  the  time  between  sunrise  and  noon 
have  elapsed. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  Thermal  Equator  ? 


260  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Show  Low  the  prevailing  winds  on  the  west  coast  of  North  and  South  America  are 
affected  by  the  variations  in  its  geographical  position. 

5.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  wind  of  Switzerland  known  as  the  Fohn? 
It  is  supposed  by  some  that  this  wind  draws  its  supply  of  air  from  the  Caribbean 
Sea. 
Discuss  this  theory. 

v. — PHYSICS. 
(Time  allowed,  1  hour.) 

1.  Describe  some  experiments  which  illustrate  the  phenomena  of  diffusion,  endos- 
mose,  and  absorption  of  gases. 

2.  Describe  accurately,  the  method  of  taking  an  observation  of  the  magnetic  dip. 
The  true  dip  at  a  certain  place  is  60°.     At  what  angle  to  the  horizon  will  the  needle 

set  itself  if  it  be  placed  (1)  at  angle  of  60°  to  the  magnetic  meridian,  (2)  at  right  an- 
gles to  the  magnetic  meridian  ? 

3.  Explain  how  you  would  determine  the  numerical  value  of  the  latent  heat  of 
steam  at  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure. 

4.  A  small  convex  lens,  focal  length  ^  inch,  placed  close  to  the  eye,  is  used  to  form 
a  magnified  image  of  an  object  £  in.  from  the  lens.     Draw  a  diagram  showing  the 
formation  of  the  image,  and  calculate  the  magnifying  power. 

VI. — STEAM  ENGINE. 

(Time  allowed,  2  hours.) 

1.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  efficiency  of  the  boiler. 

State  the  theoretical  value  of  a  pound  of  coal,  and  what  percentage  of  it  is  usefully 
employed  in  propelling  a  modern  ship. 

Mention  the  various  causes  of  the  loss  of  efficiency,  throughout  the  whole  propelling 
apparatus,  and  the  average  value  of  each  loss,  so  that  the  total  theoretical  value  of  the 
coal  may  be  accounted  for. 

2.  Give  a  sketch  of  a  large  connecting  rod,  showing  one  of  the  ends  hr detail. 

3.  Describe  the  action  of  the  steam  in  a  Compound  Engine,  and  sketch  indicator  dia- 
grams illustrating  your  answer. 

4.  Explain  the  action  of  the  link  motion  when  used  to  produce  a  variable  cut-off.     • 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXAMINATION    PAPERS    GIVEN    AT 'THE    SESSION    OF 

1877-78. 

PHYSICS. 

*     Examiner. — Prof.  A.  "W.  RUCKEU,  M.  A. 
Class  C. — Probationary  lieutenants  of  Royal  Marino  Artillery. 

1.  Describe  Nicholson's  Hydrometer,  and  the  method  of  using  it  to  determine  the 
specific  gravity  of  a  solid  body. 

If  the  sinking  weight  is  998  grams,  and  the  weights,  when  a  certain  body  is  in  the 
upper  and  lower  pans,  are  912.9  and  924.4  grams,  respectively,  what  is  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  body  ? 

2.  Enunciate  the  laws  of  liquid  pressure.     The  fall  of  the  water  in  a  lock  is  12  feet, 
and  it  is  10  feet  deep  when  the  lower  gates  are  open.     If  the  lock  is  15  feet  wide,  and 
the  gates  when  closed  are  supposed  to  bo  perpendicular  to  its  length,  find  (1)  the 
liquid  pressure  on  the  bottom  when  the  lock  is  full,  (2)  the  decrease  in  the  pressure 
on  the  lower  gates  when  it  is  emptied. 

N.  B. — 1  cub.  foot  of  water  weighs  1,000  ozs. 

3.  Explain  the  principle  of  the  barometer,  and  method  of  constructing  one. 
What  would  the  height  of  a  glycerine  barometer  be  if  the  mercurial  barometer 

stood  at  30  inches  ? 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS GREENWICH.  261 

Specific  gravity  of  mercury 13.59 

Specific  gravity  of  glycerine 1.26 

4.  What  are  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  a  magnet  ? 
Give  some  account  of  a  theory  of  its  internal  constitution. 

5.  Describe  a  method  of  making  a  magnet  by  means  of  (1)  another  magnet,  (2)  an 
electric  current. 

6.  Distinguish  between,  and  describe  experiments  illustrating,  the  different  methods 
by  which  heat  may  be  transferred  from  one  body  to  another. 

7.  Define  the  specific  heat  of  a  body.     How  many  pounds  of  water  at  0°  C.  would 
be  required  to  cool  1  cwt.  of  iron  from  04°  C.  to  19°  C.  ? 

Specific  heat  of  iron=.114.  , 

8.  Describe  a  method  of  determining  the  coefficient  of  linear  expansion  of  a  solid. 
How  does  change  of  temperature  affect  the  rate  of  a  clock,  and  by  what  devices  are 
the  errors  thus  introduced  compensated  ? 

9.  Enunciate  the  laws  of  refraction. 

Why  does  a  body  immersed  in  water  appear  nearer  to  the  surface  than  it  really  is  ? 

10.  Draw  a  diagram  showing  how  to  determine  the  position  of  the  image  of  an  ob- 
ject placed  upon  the  axis  of  a  spherical  mirror. 

Determine  the  position  of  the  image  of  an  object  placed  at  a  distance  of  15  inches 
from  a  convex  spherical  mirror,  the  radius  of  which  is  10  inches. 

HEAT,   ACOUSTICS,   LIGHT. 
Examiner. — Prof.  A.  W.  RCCKER,  31.  A. 

CLASS  AI. — Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  second  and  third 
years.  As. — Same  of  first  year.  BI. — Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  tor- 
pedo officers.  B3. — Voluntary  captains,  commanders,  and  lieutenants. 

1.  A  cylindrical  barometer  tube  extends  nine  inches  above  the  upper  surface  of  the 
mercury,  and  the  volume  of  the  "Torricellian  vacuum"  thus  formed  is  four  cubic 
inches.     Into  this  space  a  quantity  of  air  is  introduced  which,  at  a  pressure  of  32 
inches  of  mercury,  occupies  ^  cubic  inch.     By  how  much  will  the  mercury  be  de- 
pressed if  the  temperature  remains  constant  during  the  experiment  ? 

2.  Describe  fully  a  method  of  determining  the  specific  heat  of  a  body. 

Two  grams  of  water  at  50°  C.  are  mixed  with  15  grams  of  an  oil  at  5°  C.,  the  specific 
heat  of  which  is  .48.  Find  the  temperature  of  the  mixture. 

3.  Explain  the  principles  and  construction  of  Regnault's  Hygrometer. 

An  air-tight  box,  the  volume  of  which  is  one  cubic  meter,  is  filled  with  moist  air 
at  atmospheric  pressure  and  at  20°  C.  If  the  dew  point  in  the  box  is  17°  C.  and  the 
box  and  its  contents  are  reduced  to  10.5°  C.,  how  much  moisture  will  be  deposited  on 
the  sides  as  dew  ? 

Weight  of  one  cubic  meter  of  water-vapor  at  0°  C.  and  769  m.  m.  =.81  kilogram. 

Maximum  tension  at  17°  =  14.5  m.  m. 

Maximum  tension  at  10.5°  =  9.45. 

Coefficient  of  expansion  for  heat  =  — -. 

SfffO 

4.  How  is  the  boiling  point  of  a  liquid  determined  and  by  what  circumstances  is  it 
affected  ? 

5.  Describe  experiments  to  prove — 

(1.)  That  the  power  of  conducting  heat  is  different  in  different  solid  bodies,  and — 
(2.)  That  fluids  conduct  heat  badly. 

6.  Explain  and  describe  experiments  to  illustrate  the  statement  that  heat  is  a  form 
of  energy. 

How  many  units  of  heat  would  be  required  to  raise  a  shot  weighing  1  cwt.  to  the 
top  of  a  tower  96.5  feet  high  ?  If  it  were  then  projected  in  a  horizontal  direction  with 
a  velocity  of  1,544  feet  per  second,  how  much  heat  would  be  generated  if  it  were 
brought  to  rest  on  striking  the  ground  ? 


262  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Mech.  equivalent  of  heat  =  772  foot  pounds. 

7.  Describe  a  method  of  producing  Lissajous'  figures,  and  explain  the  modifications 
they  undergo  when  the  tuning  forks  employed  are  not  quite  in  unison. 

8.  How  is  the  velocity  of  sound  in  air  determined  ?    To  what  temperature  must 
carbonic- acid  gas  be  heated  that  the  velocity  of  sound  in  it  may  be  one-tenth  greater 
than  in  atmospheric  air  at  0°  C.  ? 

Density  of  air  =  1. 

Density  of  carbonic  acid  =  1.52. 

Coefficients  of  expansion  of  both  gases  =  .00366. 

Eatio  of  specific  heats  of  air  1.41. 

Ratio  of  specific  heats  of  carbonic  acid  1.26. 

9.  What  evidence  have  we  for  the  fact  that   the  light  emitted  by   the  heavenly 
bodies  travels  with  the  same  velocity  as  that  proceeding  from  terrestrial  sources  ? 

10.  Define  a  lens,  its  axis,  and  its  principal  focus. 

The  image  of  the  sun  formed  by  a  certain  convex  lens  on  its  axis  is  10  inches  distant 
from  the  lens  ;  the  refractive  index  of  the  glass  of  which  the  lens  is  composed  is  1.5, 
and  its  two  faces  are  equally  curved. 
What  is — 

(1.)  the  focal  length  of  the  lens, 

(2.)  the  radius  of  the  spheres  of  which  the  faces  are  parts, 
(3.)  the  shortest  possible  distance  between  an  object  placed  on  the  axis  of  the 
lens  and  its  image  f 

11.  Explain  the  construction  of  the  astronomical  telescope,  and  show  how  to  deter- 
mine its  magnifying  power. 

12.  Describe  the  arrangements  for  obtaining  a  pure  solar  spectrum,  and  discuss  the 
special  characteristics  and  properties  of  its  various  parts. 

MAGXETISM  AND   ELECTRICITY. 
Examiner. — Prof.  A.  W.  ROCKER,  M.  A. 

AI. — Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering,  of  second  and  third 
years.  As- — Same  of  first  year.  BI. — Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  tor- 
pedo officers.  B2. — Voluntary  students. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  line  of  force  ? 

Describe  and  explain  the  formation  of  the  curves  exhibited  by  iron  filings  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  magnet. 

2.  How  may  the  dip  of  the  needle  be  accurately  determined  ? 

If  the  angle  of  dip  is  45°,  and  a  declination  needle  makes  25  oscillations  per  minute, 
how  many  would  it  make  at  a  place  where  the  dip  is  60°,  and  the  total  intensity  of 
the  earth's  magnetic  force  is  one-fifth  greater  ? 

3.  Describe  experiments  to  prove  that  liquids  and  gases  [are  affected  by  magnetic 
influences. 

4.  Explain  the  causes  of  the  semicircular  and  quaudrautal  deviations  of  the  magnet 
in  iron  ships. 

If  the  maximum  quadrantal  deviation  be  4°,  what  will  it  be  when  the  ship's  head 
is  (1)  N.  by  E.,  (2)  NNE.,  and  (3)  NE. 

sin  2  pts.  =  .  383. 
sin  4  pts.  =  .  707. 

5.  Describe  the  construction,  and  explain  the  action,  of  a  frictional  electrical  ma- 
chine. 

6.  Explain  the  protective  effect  of  lightning  conductors.     Mention  any  points  to 
which  special  attention  should  be  paid  in  their  construction. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  specific  inductive  capacity,  and  how  are  the  inductive  powers 
jof  bodi  0  s  compared  ? 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS  -  GREENWICH.  263 

8.  Describe  and  explain  the  method  of  using  a  tangent  galvanometer. 

An  electric  current  sent  through  a  tangent  galvanometer  and  a  voltameter  deflects 
the  needle  through  30°  and  electrolyzes  .  72  milligrams  of  water  per  minute.  How- 
much  water  will  be  electrolyzed  in  the  same  time  if  the  strength  of  the  current  be 
increased  so  that  the  deflection  becomes  60°  f 

9.  Give  a  short  account  of  the  principal  phenomena  of  thermo-electricity.     Describe 
the  thermopile. 

10.  Under  what  circumstances  are  electric  currents  induced  by  other  currents  and 
by  magnets  ? 

11.  A  galvanic  current  was  sent  through  a  tangent  galvanometer,  the  resistance  of 
which  together  with  that  of  the  wires  which  connected  it  with  the  battery  was  five 
ohms.     When  an  additional  resistance  of  52  ohms  was  included  in  the  circuit  the  tan- 
gent of  the  angle  of  deflection  was  reduced  to  one-third  of  its  former  value.     Find  the 
internal  resistance  of  the  battery. 

12.  A  silver  wire  is  joined  at  one  extremity  to  an  iron  wire  of  the  same  length,  and 
the  other  extremities  being  connected  with  the  poles  of  a.  battery,  a  current  of  con- 
stant strength  is  sent  through  them  for  five  minutes.     The  total  quantity  of  heat  gen- 
erated in  the  wires  is  45  units.     How  much  is  produced  in  the  silver  and  how  much 
in  the  iron  wire  ? 

The  specific  resistance  of  iron  is  six  times  that  of  silver,  and  the  diameter  of  the 
iron  Avire  is  twice  that  of  the  silver  one. 

CHEMISTRY. 

Examiner.  —  Dr.  ATKINSOX. 

All  students  of  first,  second,  or  third  years  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineer- 
ing. Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.  Voluntary  stu- 
dents. 

1.  A  specimen  of  niter  is  contaminated  with  common  salt  ;  in  what  way  would  you 
purify  it  ?     Give  the  tests  for  nitrates  and  for  chlorides. 

2.  Describe  the  successive  changes  which  take  place  when  sulphur  is  subjected  to 
the  action  of  heat. 

3.  What  simple  methods  are  available  for  determining  the  amount  of  oxygen  pres- 
ent in  atmospheric  air  ?    What  natural  processes  are  at  work  which  tend  to  maintain. 
uniformity  in  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere  ? 

4.  Supposing  that  the  sole  products  of  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  are  3C,O2,  N, 
and  K..S,  of  what  substances,  and  in  what  proportions,  must  gunpowder  consist  to 
yield  precisely  these  products  ?  C  =  12,  O  —  16,  K=39,  S  =  32. 

5.  When  chlorine  and  steam  are  passed  through  a  red-hot  tube  the  following  de- 
composition takes  place  : 


What  volume  of  oxygen  measured  at  15°  C.  and  under  a  pressure  of  760  m.m.  would 
result  from  the  decomposition,  under  these  circumstances,  of  18  grams  of  steam  ? 

6.  What  are  the  conditions  for  the  production  of  a  voltaic  current  ?    Mention  some 
jnstances  of  accidental  voltaic  combinations. 

7.  By  what  tests  would  you  distinguish  between  nitrogen  and  carbonic  oxide  ;  be- 
tween marsh  gas  and  olefiant  gas  ;   and  between  sulphurous  acid  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  ? 

8.  Describe  the  preparation  and  collection  of  ammoniacal  gas.     What  change  takes 
place  when  it  conies  in  contact  with  hydrochloric-acid  gas  ? 

9.  How  may  ozone  best  be  prepared  in  quantity  ?    How  may  it  be  distinguished 
from  oxygen,  and  from  peroxide  of  hydrogen  ? 

10.  Describe  the  principal  allotropic  varieties  of  carbon,  and  their  chief  uses  ;  and 
explain  by  reference  to  experiment  the  antiseptic  properties  of  charcoal. 


264  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

MARINE   SURVEYING. 

Examiner, — Lieutenant  DAWSON,  E.  N. 

BI. — Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.      B.2. — Voluntary  stu- 
dents. 

1.  Explain  the  different  methods  used  for  measuring  a  base  line  in  marine  surveying. 

2.  May  8,  chronometer  fast  on  mean  time,  Mauritius,  3h  45m  46s,  daily  rate  gaining 
2s.  85. 

The  same  chronometer  fast  on  mean  time,  Aden,  4h  36™  21S.75,  at  noon  of  May  19,. 
and  at  noon  of  May  26  fast  on  mean  time,  Aden,  4h  36m  46S.25. 

Ascertain  the  Aden  rate :  also  the  meridian  distance  between  Mauritius  and  Aden, 
using  the  mean  of  the  rates. 

3.  From  summit  A,  239  feet  above  the  sea  surface,  B  was  elevated  5°  45'  and  C  de- 
pressed 2°  12'. 

Horizontal  distance  between  A  and  B  1,892  feet. 
Horizontal  distance  between  A  and  C  1,530  feet. 
Required  the  heights  of  B  and  C  above  the  sea  surface. 

4.  From  gunboat  in  3£  fathoms,  frigate  in  6  fathoms  bore  SSW.  (true),  distance  2 
miles,  and  sloop  in  5  fathoms  bore  W.  £  S.  (true),  distance  1.5  miles. 

At  launch  in  2-J-  fathoms. 
Gunboat,  24°  30'.     Sloop,  35°  18'  frigate. 

Soundings  in  fathoms  at  equal  distances  between  sloop  and  launch  4£,  4,  3.  Reduc- 
tion to  low  water  9  feet. 

Protract  on  scale  of  2  ins.  =  a  mile,  and  place  position  of  launch  and  the  reduced 
soundings  on  the  plan. 

5.  In  survey  of  a  harbor  A8  were  selected  at  Windmill  on  table  land  on  east  side  of 
entrance,  at  Church  on  hill  about  a  mile  inland  from  the  harbor's  head,  and  at  Tree  on 
a  projecting  headland  on  southwest  side  of  entrance. 

Working  from  a  measured  base  line  the  distance  between  Church  A  and  Windmill  A 
was  calculated  to  be  18,159  feet. 

At  Windmill  A.     Lat.  20°  N. 
o      / 

Zero  Church  A 360    0    Magnetic  bearing  N.  45°  W. 

Sun's  center 125  37  )  Corrected  December,  18°  5' 

Sun's  center,  altitude  of ^     N.  for  a.  m.  true  bearing. 

Minaret  $  end  of  sand  in  East  Bay 7     0 

TreePoint 291    0 

2VeeA 298  50 

Spur  in  tree  range 310    0 

Cone  in  tree  range 316  10 

South  end  of  reef  extending  from  Black  Point . .     329    0 
Stony  peak  $  Black  Point 335  30 

At  Church  A. 

o      ' 

Zero  Windmill  & 360    0 

Windmill  Point 15    0 

South  end  of  reef 44    0 

Black  Point 48    0 

Tree  Point 51    0 

free  A 57  30 

Bight  of  West  Bay 69    0 

Spur  in  tree  range 75  10 

Cone  in  tree  range 89  30> 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  265 


Stony  Peak 103  30 

Minaret 347     0 

End  of  sand  in  East  Bay 357  50 

At  Tree  A. 

Zero  Church  & 360    0 

Black  Point 7    0 

South  end  of  reef 14  30 

Minaret 20  30 

End  of  sand  in  East  Bay 46     0 

Windmill  & 61  20 

Tree  Point 120    0 

Spur  $  Cone  in  tree  range 290    0 

Stony  Peak  $  bight  of  sand  in  West  Bay 329    0 

West  Bay  (shore  of  sand)  curves  between  Tree  Point  and  Black  Point;  East  Bay 
(shore  of  sand)  curves  between  Black  Point  and  end  of  sand.  Black  Point  is  a  rocky 
shelf  dividing  East  from  West  Bays.  Reef  of  rocks  awash  extends  southward  from 
Black  Point.  Coast  between  end  of  sand  and  Windmill  Point  straight  and  cliify. 
Minaret  surrounded  by  scattered  houses.  Cultivation  around  the  head  of  the  bay. 
Tree  range  of  hills  extends  betweeai  Church  and  Tree  A",  decreasing  in  height  towards 
the  latter. 

Project  and  give  a  sketch  of  this  work  on  a  scale  of  1.5  inch  =  a  mile  of  6,053  feet, 
ruling  the  true  and  magnetic  meridians  through  Windmill  A. 

N.  B. — Windmill  A  should  le  about  3  inches  from  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  paper. 

NAVIGATION  AND  NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY. 

Examiner. — H.  B.  GOODWIN,  Esq.,  M.  A. 
BI. — Lieutenants  qualifying  for  torpedo  and  gunnery  officers.    B2. — Voluntary  students. 

1.  Explain  the  terms:  Departure,  Longitude,  Course,  Rhumb  Line,  Great  Circle. 

A  ship  sails  a  certain  number  of  miles  on  a  given  course  from  a  place  on  the  earth's 
surface,  given  in  position.  By  what  methods  may  the  longitude  in  be  determined, 
and  under  what  circumstances  should  one  or  other  of  these  methods  be  preferred  ? 

A  ship  sails  from  lat.  39C  21'  S.,  long.  55°  36'  E.,  first  N.  by  W.  718  miles  and  then 
NE.  by  E.  256  miles.  Find  the  latitude  and  longitude  in. 

2.  Explain,  with  the  aid  of  diagrams,  the  terms :  Rational  Horizon,  Celestial  Meridian, 
Ecliptic  and  Prime  Vertical,  Sidereal  Time. 

At  two  places  on  the  earth's  surface  the  ecliptic  coincides  with  the  prime  vertical, 
at  the  first  when  the  sidereal  time  is  6  hours,  at  the  second  when  it  is  18  hours.  Re- 
quired the  latitudes  of  the  two  places. 

3.  A  ship  that  can  sail  5  points  off  the  wind  6-J  knots  wishes  to  reach  a  point  137 
miles  NW.  by  W.  of  her  in  two  boards.     She  starts  on  the  port  tack,  the  wind  being 
NW.  by  N.     After  what  interval  should  she  go  about  ? 

4.  Prove  the  rule  for  finding  latitude  by  meridian  altitude-of  a  heavenly  body. 

At  the  summer  solstice  of  the  northern  hemisphere  the  meridian  zenith  distance  of 
the  sun  was  three  times  as  great  as  the  latitude  at  two  different  places.  Find  their 
r.espective  latitudes. 

5.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  Polar  Angle  in  a  Double  Altitude  observation,  and 
give  the  method  of  finding  the  Polar  Angle  in  a  Double  Altitude  of  two  stars  taken  at 
different  times. 

On  December  22,  1878,  in  latitude  by  account  45C  N.,  the  following  double  altitude 
of  stars  was  observed : 

True  altitudes.  Time  by  chronometer.  Bearing. 

Regulus    49C  29'  30"  6h  15m  27*  SW.  £  W. 

Arcturus  61    11     0  7   29    59  SE.  by  S. 

Required  the  true  latitude. 


266  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

6.  November  19,  1878,  in  lat.  25°  39'  S.,  and  long.  45°  7'  E.,  at  8h  40m  p.  m.,  the  alti- 
tude of  Jupiter's  center  (W.  of  meridian),  observed  by  artificial  horizon,  was  63°  22' 
20",  when  a  chronometer  showed  6h  12m  11s,  the  index  correction  being  —  2'  5".     Re- 
quired the  error  of  the  chronometer  on  G.M.T.,  and  its  rate,  having  given  the  error 
on  G.M.T.  at  G.M.  noon,  October  30,  35ra  17s  fast. 

7.  Explain  the  method  of  finding  variation  by  amplitude.     Why  cannot  this  obser- 
vation be  depended  upon  in  high  latitudes  ? 

Find  the  compass  bearing  of  the  sun  at  rising,  .it  a  place  in  latitude  27°  40'  S.,  when 
the  declination  is  7°  40'  N.  (Variation  18°  W.,  deviation  7°  E.) 

8.  Explain  the  method  of  finding  error  of  chronometer  by  equal  altitudes,  and  in 
vestigate  an  expression  for  the  equation  of  equal  altitudes. 

9.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  terms :   Latitude  and  longitude  of  a  heavenly  body. 
Find  the  true  distance  between  the  sun  and  moon  from  the  following  data : 

Latitude  moon    4°  49'  N.  Longitude  sun  323°  42' 

Longitude  moon  77    0 

10.  In  what  latitude  north  is  the  day  lh  48m  longer  when  the  sun's  declination  is  20° 
N.  than  when  it  is  10°  N.  ? 

FORTIFICATION". 
Examiner.—  Ca.pt.  B.  G.  HALL,  R.M.A. 

Gunnery  Lieutenants,  Marine  Officers,  Probationary  Lieutenants  K.  M.  A. 

1.  Given  a  plan  of  a  house  without  any  scale  attached.     On  inspection  you  find  that 
the  front  of  the  building  is  figured  90  feet,  and  measures  4.8  inches.     Construct  a  scale 
of  feet  for  the  plan. 

2.  When  suitable  cover  does  not  exist  naturally,  what  is  the  readiest  means  of  ob- 
taining it  for  infantry  in  line  ? 

Draw  a  section — adding  dimensions — of  the  cover  you  would  construct  for  this  pur- 
pose, provided  half  an  hour  only  were  available — scale  10  feet  to  1  inch.  Also  state 
the  number  of  men  and  tools  per  100  feet  linear  of  cover  required  for  its  construc- 
tion. 

Indicate,  generally,  its  position  with  reference  to  the  crest  line  of  the  hill,  when  it 
is  thrown  up  for  the  defense  of  an  elevated  position  with  steep  and  well-rounded 
slopes,  similar  to  those  met  with  in  the  chalk  hills  of  the  south  of  England.  State 
your  reasons. 

3.  State  the  general  principles  which  should  be  observed  in  preparing  brick  walls, 
not  exposed  to  artillery  fire,  for  defense. 

Illustrate  them  by  a  sketch  showing  a  wall  from  10  to  12  feet  high  thus  prepared. 
What  modification  would  you  propose  in  the  above  if  liable  to  be  cannonaded  ? 

4.  Show,  by  a  hand  sketch,  the  plan  and  section,  through  the  embrasure,  of  a  Bat- 
tery for  two  guns,  suitable  to  the  field  artillery  now  in  use  in  our  service,  and  appli- 
cable to  a  site  which  has  little  command  over  the  surrounding  country. 

Give  approximately  the  time  and  the  number  of  men  required  for  its  construction. 

5.  A  field-work  parapet  has  to  be  constructed  on  level  ground  with  a  "  command"  of 
8  feet,  and  of  sufficient  thickness  to  resist  modern  field  artillery. 

Show,  by  hand  sketch,  the  profile  you  would  adopt,  and  mark  the  various  dimen- 
sions and  slopes,  which  are  to  be  those  ordinarily  used  in  average  soil. 

Show  also  the  calculations  by  which  the  width  of  the  ditch  has  been  determined. 

If  the  above  parapet  had  to  be  constructed  in  haste,  and  labor  were  abundant,  how 
far  would  you  modify  the  profile,  retaining  the  same  amount  of  cover  ? 

6.  Enumerate  the  principal  obstacles  used  in  conjunction  with  field  works. 
Where  are  they  usually  placed,  and  what  conditions  should  they  fulfill  to  render 

them  efficient? 

If  the  obstacle  could  not  be  protected  from  artillery  fire,  which  would  you  prefer 
to  use  ? 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  267 

7.  What  is  a  revetment  in  field  fortification  ? 
Where  and  why  is  it  required  ? 

Describe,  and  illustrate  by  hand  sketch,  a  Gabion  revetment  of  the  interior  slope  of 
a  parapet  provided  with  a  banquette. 

8.  Having  regard  to  the  very  destructive  effect  of  modern  artillery  shell  fire,  how 
would  you  protect  the  garrison  of  a  field  redoubt  from  suffering  inordinate  losses  ? 

Show,  by  hand  sketches,  sections  of  the  constructions  you  would  employ  for  the 
purpose. 

9.  What  is  the  object  of  the  Glacis  in  permanent  fortification,  and  how  are  its 
height  and  slopes  regulated  ? 

10.  What  is  a  "ravelin"  ? 

State  the  advantages  of  large  "  ravelins"  over  small  ones. 

11.  Give  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  polygonal  over  the  bastioned  system. 

12.  Describe  the  construction  of  a  bridge  of  boats  across  a  river,  and  illustrate,  by 
hand  sketch,  how  the  boats  should  be  fitted. 

How  would  you  calculate  the  available  buoyancy  of  a  boat  ?  and  what  modifications 
in  construction  would  you  make  in  a  tidal  river  ? 

PERMANENT   FORTIFICATION. 

Examiner. — Capt.  B.  G.  HALL,  E.  M.  A. 

Marine  Officers,  Probationary  Lieutenants  R.  M.  A. 

1.  Define  the  terms  Terreplein  of  the  Rampart,  Covered  Way,   Full  Revetment, 
Demi-Revetment,  Outworks,  and  Detached  Works. 

2.  What  rules  should  be  attended  to  in  determining  the  height  of  the  escarp  of  a 
fortress  ?    A  marked  feature  of  works  of  modern  construction  is  a  deep  but  narrow 
ditch.     To  what  do  you  attribute  it? 

3.  Give  a  hand  sketch   of  a   ''detached  escarp."     What  are  its  advantages  and 
defects  ? 

4.  What  are  the  principal  defects  of  the  bastioned  system  ? 

5.  Upon  what  does  the  efficiency  of  the  flank  defense  of  the  enceinte  of  a  fortress 
depend?    Describe  how  this  has  been  obtained  in  the  polygonal  system. 

6.  State  the  defects  of  the  ordinary  embrasure  of  earthen  parapets.     Why  do  you 
find  them  still  retained  in  many  of  our  coast  batteries  ? 

7.  What  are  the  considerations  which  have  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  chain  of  detached 
forts  for  the  defense  of  our  dockyards  ?     State  the  principal  advantages  of  this  system 
of  defending  important  points  ;  and  what  were  the  reasons  why  the  forts  around  Paris 
in  1870-71  failed  to  secure  to  the  full  these  advantages  ? 

8.  In  what  positions  are  casemated  batteries  iised  ?    Describe  briefly  the  modern 
type  now  used  for  sea  defenses. 

9.  Explain,  generally,  the  different  methods  by  which  the  capture  of  a  fortress  may 
be  attempted.     Judging   from  the  experience  of  late  wars,  which  method  do  you 
think  would,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  be  most  likely  to  be  attended  with  success 
against  a  well-found  modern  fortress  ?     State  your  reasons. 

10.  Describe  and  illustrate  by  sketch  a  screen  gun  battery. 

HEAT,    STEAM,    AND   COMBUSTION. 

Examiner. — Prof.  ALEX.  J5.  W.  KENNEDY. 

CLASSES  AI  and  A> 

1.  The  efficiency  of  a  boiler  is  said  to  be  the  product  of  the  efficiencies  of  its  furnace 
and  its  heating  surface.     Explain  this,  and  state  what  quantities  would  have  to  be 
measured  in  practice  in  order  to  determine  each. 

2.  The  following  is  the  analysis  of  a  piece  of  Northumberland  coal:  what  is  (api. 


268  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

proximately)  its  theoretic  calorific  value  if  one-fifth  of  the  carbon  be  burnt  only  to 

CO,  the  remainder  to  CO2? 

C 82.4 

H 4.8 

0 8.1 

N 2.4 

S 0.3 

Ash..  2.0 


100.0 

3.  If  20  Ibs.  of  air  pass  through  the  furnace  per  pound  of  fuel,  and  if  the  air  enter 
the  furnace  at  60°  Fahr.,  and  the  gases  of  combustion  leave  the  boiler  at  460°,  what 
will  be  the  available  calorific  value  of  the  fuel  ? 

4.  How  is  the  economic  value  of  a  bituminous  coal,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  smoke 
produced  by  its  combustion,  affected  by  the  times  and  places  at  which  air  is  adinittted 
to  the  furnace  ? 

5.  How  much  work  would  be  done  in  a  perfect  engine  working  between  1,250° 
Fahr.  and  285°  Fahr.,  for  the  expenditure  of  40,000  thermal  units  ? 

6.  State  the  conditions  under  which  air  and  dry  saturated  steam,  respectively,  can 
undergo  the  following  changes,  or  such  of  them  as  are  possible  for  a  given  weight  of 
both  fluids : 

(a)  Change  of  volume  at  constant  temperature, 
(ft)  Change  of  pressure  at  constant  temperature, 
(c)  Change  of  temperature  at  constant  volume. 

7.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  2.5  Ibs.  of  water  from  65° 
Fahr.  to  302°  Fahr.,  and  to  evaporate  it  at  that  pressure  ? 

8.  Explain  the  meaning  and  use  of  "pressures  equivalent  to"  quantities  of  heat  or 
work. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  saturated  steam  ? 

10.  The  mean  effective  pressure  during  a  stroke  is  frequently  taken  as 


where  pi  and  p3  stand  for  the  initial  pressure  and  back  pressure,  respectively,  r  being 
the  ratio  of  expansion.  Explain  how  this  expression  is  obtained,  and  state  to  what 
extent  it  represents  the  mean  pressure  which  would  probably  be  obtained  in  practice. 

11.  Two  engines  of  the  same  size  work  with  the  same  initial  and  back  pressures, 
one  without  expansion  and  one  cutting  off  at  .25  of  the  stroke.     Compare  the  work 
done  and  the  amount  of  steam  used  in  the  two  machines. 

12.  Taking  the  diameter  of  the  cylinders  as  12  inches,  and  the  piston  speed  as  320 
feet  per  minute,  and  assuming  pi  =  70  pounds  and  p3  =  3  pounds  per  square  inch, 
calculate  the  horse  power  for  the  two  cases  mentioned  in  the  last  question. 

ENGINE  DESIGN  AND   CALCULATION. 

Examiner. — JAMES  WKIGHT,  Esq. 

CLASSES  At  and  A2. 

1.  What  amount  of  grate  surface,  of  tube  surface,  and  of  total  heating  surface  would 
you  allow  for  the  boilers  of  a  compound  engine  to  develop,  at  most  1,000  I.  H,  P., 
steam  of  75  cwts.  absolute,  to  be  expanded  8  times  ? 

2.  Give  au  outline  design  of  the  boilers  in  three  parts  on  the  low  cylindrical  plan; 
size  of  shells,  furnaces,  and  tubes  to  be  given  in  figures. 

3.  Give  sketches,  with  dimensions,  showing  how  the  combustion  chamber  and  the 
ends  of  one  of  these  boilers  should  be  stayed. 

4.  Show  the  boilers  placed  in  the  vessel,  and  indicate  the  positions  of  the  various 
"fittings  and  mountings. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  269 

5.  Give  a  sketch  of  a  pair  of  spring-loaded  safety-valves  for  one  of  these  boilers, 
and  state  what  the  diameter  of  the  valves  should  be. 

6.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  stop-valve  and  its  box,  state  the  size  of  the  valve  and 
steam-pipe,  and  show  how  the  steam-pipes  for  the  set  of  boilers  could  be  arranged. 

7.  What  would  be  the  proper  dimensions  of  the  high  pressure  and  the  low  pressure 
cylinders  of  the  engines  to  develop  1,000  I.  H.  P.,  assuming  the  piston  speed  to  be  460 
feet  per  minute  ? 

8.  Give  a  section  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder,  showing  the  steam  and  exhaust 
ports,  and  state  the  dimensions  of  the  ports.  • 

9.  Draw  the  valve  diagram  for  the  high-pressure  valve,  and  give  the  travel,  lap, 
and  lead. 

10.  Give  a  formula  for  finding  the  strength  of  the  crank-shaft,  and  give  a  sketch  of 
the  crank-shaft  suitable  for  this  engine,  with  figured  dimensions  of  the  principal  parts. 

11.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  crank  end  of  the  connecting  rod,  and  state  the  diameter  of 
the  rod  and  of  the  bolts. 

12.  What  amount  of  cooling  surface  would  you  give  for  the  surface  condenser  of  the 
above-mentioned  engine?     Give  an  outline  sketch  of  the  kind  of  surface  condenser 
you  would  propose. 

13.  HOW  would  you  determine  the  si/e  of  the  air-pump  and  the  area  of  the  passages 
through  its  valves  ? 

14.  Give  a  sketch  showing  the  valves  at  one  end  of  the  air-pump,  and  show  how 
they  should  be  arranged  to  insure  efficient  working  of  the  pump. 

15.  Suppose  the  engines  above  mentioned  would  give  the  vessel  a  speed  of  12  knots 
when  developing  1,000  I.  H.  P.,  what  diameter  and  pitch  would  you  give  to  the  pro- 
peller ?    Explain  how  you  arrive  at  your  conclusions. 

STEAM  AND   STEAM  ENGINE. 

Examiner. — JAMES  WRIGHT,  Esq. 

CLASSES  AI  and  A2. 

1.  What  are  the  principal  heat-producing  constituents  of  ordinary  coal?     Give  a 
Short  description  of  the  process  of  combustion  in  the  furnace  of  a  marine  boiler. 

2.  How  much  air  is  required  for  the  complete  combustion  of  1  Ib.  of  average  coal  ? 
In  what  manner  is  the  necessary  quantity  of  air  admitted  for  the  combustion  of  the 
gaseous  portions  and  of  the  solid  carbon  ? 

3.  What  is  the  evaporative  power  of  1  Ib.  of  the  best  kinds  of  Welsh  and  North 
Country  coal  ?    How  much  water  can  be  evaporated  by  1  Ib.  of  each  respectively  in  a 
marine  boiler  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  1 

4.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace,  the  heating  surface,  and 
the  boiler;  and  distinguish  between  efficiency  and  evaporative  power  of  boiler. 

5.  For  what  purpose  is  the  steam  blast  fitted  in  the  chimney  ?    When  should  it  be 
used?    What  injurious  effects  are  likely  to  arise  from  using  it  too  freely? 

6.  Why  is  the  steam  blast  generally  preferred  to  blowing  fans  for  producing  a 
draught  in  the  boilers  ?    How  many  Ibs.  of  coal  can  be  burnt  per  foot  of  grate  per  hour 
in  the  furnace  of  a  marine  boiler  with  the  ordinary  chimney  draught,  and  how  much 
with  the  steam  blast  in  use  ? 

7.  Which  are  the  most  valuable  surfaces  in  the  boiler  for  producing  evaporation? 
Give  reasons  fully. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  the  efficiency  of  the  steam  ?    What  is  its  approximate  value  in 
the  best  types  of  marine  engines  ? 

9.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  total  quantity  of  heat  contained  in  1  Ib.  of  steam  at 
70°  Ibs.  pressure  and  in  1  Ib.  at  30°  Ibs.  pressure  ? 

10.  Explain  clearly  why  it  is  advantageous  to  use  steam  of  high  pressure  in  prefer- 
ence to  steam  of  low  pressure  ? 

11.  When  is  the  greatest  efficiency  of  the  steam  obtained  at  high,  moderate,  or  low 


270  NAVAL    EDUCATION — APPENDIX. 

powers?    Distinguish  between  most  efficient  rate  of  Avorkiug  of  engines  and  most 
economical  rate  of  speed  of  ship. 

12.  Give  a  short  description  of  the  manner  in  which  heat  parses  from  the  steam  to 
the  cylinder  and  back  again  to  the  steam  during  each  stroke  in  an  unjacketed  cylinder. 

13.  How  are  the  losses,  due  to  the  initial  liquefaction  at  high  rates  of  expansion, 
partially  prevented  by  the  adoption  of  the  steam  jacket  ?    Explain  fully. 

14.  How  are  the  difficulties  attending  the  use  of  a  high  rate  of  expansion  with  high- 
pressure  steam  overcome  by  the  adoption  of  the  compound  engine? 

15.  State  fully  what  are  the  merits  and  demerits  of  compound  and  simple  expansive 
engines,  respectively,  for  ships  of  war. 

16.  Enumerate  the  causes  which  produce  loss  of  efficiency  in  the  machinery  and 
propellers,  and  give  approximately  the  amount  of  loss  due  to  each  of  these  causes. 

17.  What  does  the  total  efficiency  of  boilers,  steam-engines,  and  propellers  amount 
.  to  in  the  best  types  of  marine  engines? 

18.  What  difficulties  are  experienced  in  the  use  of  expansion  valves  ?     In  cases  where 
they  are  dispensed  with  how  is  the  steam  used  for  low  powers? 

19.  In  what  manner  is  a  gain  realized  by  the  substitution  of  surface  condensation 
for  jet  condensation?     Show  what  is  the  gain  in  any  particular  case,  and  state  why 
it  is  necessary  to  use  surface  condensation  with  high-pressure  steam. 

20.  What  influence  has  the  introduction  of  surface  condensation  had  on  the  dura- 
bility of  boilers?    In  what  way  was  the  corroding  action  at  first  supposed  to  be  set  up, 
and  what  should  be  done  to  lessen  the  deterioration  of  boiler*,  both  wlieu  in  use  and 
when  not  in  use  on  board  ship  ? 

PRACTICAL   ENGINEERING. 

Examiner. — JAMES  WRIGHT,  Esq. 
CLASSES  AI  and  A2. 

1.  Sketch  and  describe  the  apparatus  usually  fitted  to  the  furnace  bridges  of  a 
boiler  for  the  admission  of  air,  also  a  good  arrangement  of  furnace  door  adapted  for 
smoke  burning. 

2.  Give  the  dimensions  of  an  ordinary  fire  bar,  show  how  it  is  placed  in  the  furnace, 
and  state  what  is  the  usual  width  of  the  space  between  the  bars. 

3.  Make  a  vertical  section  of  a  rectangular  boiler  through  the  furnace  and  combus- 
tion chamber.     Explain  how  the  evaporating  power  of  the,  heating  surface  is  increased 
by  the  usual  method  of  constructing  the  combustion  chamber. 

4.  What  inconvenience  is  frequently  experienced  when  steaming  with  new  boilers 
or  with  clean  heating  surface  and  forcing  the  fires  ?    For  Avhat  reason  does  the  incon- 
venience cease  to  be  felt  after  a  time  ? 

5.  What  advantages  are  gained  by  the  use  of  the  double-ended  cylindrical  boiler  ? 
What  disadvantages  compared  with  the  single-ended  boiler  are  introduced  by  the 
adoption  of  the  double-ended  one  ? 

6.  When  a  boiler  at  work  is  priming,  what  is  usually  done  to  stop  the  priming,  and 
to  prevent  the  damage  arising  from  it  ? 

7.  What  defects  of  construction,  as  distinguished  from  defects  of  treatment,  may 
lead  to  priming  in  a  boiler  ? 

8.  Make  a  vertical  section  of  a  low  cylindrical  boiler  through  one  of  the  furnaces^ 
Why  is  a  hanging  bridge  fitted  in  the  combustion  chamber  ? 

9.  What  pressure  of  steam  is  supplied  to  the  jackets  of  the  high  and  low  pressure- 
cylinders  of  a  compound  engine  ?    How  are  the  jackets  usually  formed  ? 

10.  How  are  the  pistons  of  large  horizontal  engines  supported,  and  what  means  are 
usually  applied  to  facilitate  the  adjustment  of  the  pistons  ? 

11.  To  what  causes  may  the  heating  of  a  piston-rod  be  due  when  the  engine  is   at 
work,  and  what  would  you  do  to  cool  it  without  stopping  the  engines  ? 

12.  Why  are  mineral  oils  now  used,  instead  of  tallow  or  vegetable  oil,  for  lubricat- 
ing the  internal  working  parts  of  the  engines  ? 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS GREENWICH.  271 

13.  Why  does  not  the  vacuum  line  of  an  indicator  diagram  correspond  Avith  the 
vacuum  as  shown  by  the  gauge  on  the  condenser  ?     On  what,  to  a  great  extent,  does- 
the  vacuum  in  the  cylinder  depend  ? 

14.  If  a  bad  vacuum  were  found  to  exist  in  a  surface  condenser,  what  would  you  da 
to  ascertain  the  cause  of  it,  and  how  would  you  improve  it,  if  it  were  not  caused  by 
defects  of  construction  ? 

15.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  usual  kind  of  plunger  feed  pump  worked  by  the  main  engine, 
and  show  the  suction  and  delivery  valves. 

16.  What  arrangement  is  usually  fitted  to  a  feed  pump,  taking  water  from  a  surface 
condenser,  to  prevent  waste  of  fresh  water  ? 

17.  Give  a  sketch  of  a  thrust  bearing,  and  explain  how  it  can  be  adjusted. 

18.  Give  a  sketch  and  description  of  the  bearings  of  a  screw  propeller  fitted  to  admit 
of  being  hoisted. 

STEAM  AND   STEAM   ENGINE. 
Examiner.— JAMES  "WRIGHT,  Esq. 

BI. — Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     B2. — Voluntary  stu- 
dents. 

1.  What  are  the  respective  qualities  of  Welsh  and  North  Country  coal  for  steaming 
purposes  in  marine  boilers ;  under  what  circumstances  is  it  desirable  to  use  a  mixture 
of  the  two  kinds,  and  what  proportion  of  each  constitutes  the  mixed  coal  used  in  Her 
Majesty's  service  ? 

2.  Describe  the  process  of  combustion  of  coal,  formation  of  smoke  and  flame.     To 
what  extent  does  loss  arise  in  ordinary  practice  through  incomplete  combustion  ? 

3.  What  are  the  methods  in  use  on  board  ship  for  obtaining  an  air  supply  for  the 
furnaces,  what  is  the  effect  of  the  admission  of  air  by  other  means  than  through  the 
furnaces,  and  how  would  you  estimate  the  intensity  of  draft  produced  by  rarefac- 
tion in  the  chimney  ? 

4.  Explain  how  heat  is  transmitted  from  the  hot  furnace  gases  to  the  water  in  the 
boiler,  and  state  how  under  similar  conditions  the  rate  of  transmission  varies  in  re- 
lation to  difference  of  temperatures. 

5.  What  conditions  in  ordinary  practice  affect  the  rate  of  transmission  of  heat  to  the 
•water,  and  how  is  the  efficiency  of  the  heating  surfaces  of  the  boiler  affected  by  their 
arrangement  and  position  ? 

6.  Give  the  average  efficiency  and  evaporative  power,  respectively,  of — 

(a)  the  ordinary  rectangular  boiler, 
(&)  the  high-pressure  cylindrical  boiler. 

7.  Give  outline  sketches  and  a  description  of  the  above-mentioned  two  kinds  of  boiler, 
as  usually  made  for  ships  of  war. 

8.  Name  the  various  fittings  and  mounting  applied  to  a  marine  boiler,  and  explain 
the  purpose  for  which  each  is  used. 

9.  Describe  the  course  taken -by  the  steam,  in  passing  through  a  compound  engine, 
from  the  time  it  leaves  the  boiler  until  it  returns  again  to  the  boiler  in  the  condition 
of  feed  water. 

10.  Explain  why  it  is  advantageous  to  use  steam  of  high  pressure  instead  of  steam  of 
low  pressure ;  to  what  extent  are  we  at  present  limited  with  regard  to  the  maximum 
pressure  which  can  be  employed  for  marine  engines  and  boilers  ?     Give  reasons. 

11.  What  are  the  reasons  for  the  alleged  superior  economy  of  the  compound  engine, 
and  what  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  kind  of  engine  for  ships  of 
war? 

12.  Sketch  the  indicator  diagrams  you  would  expect  to  obtain  from  the  high  and 
low  pressure  cylinders  of  a  compound  engine,  and  explain  how  the  mean  pressure  of 
each  is  calculated. 

13.  The  high-pressure  cylinder  of  a  compound  engine  is  40  inches,  and  the  low-press- 
ure cylinder  is  70  inches  in  diameter ;  the  mean  pressure  in  the  former  is  30  pounds, 


272  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

iii  the  latter  10  pounds  per  square  inch.     The  length  of  the  stroke  being  3  feet,  and 
the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  60,  what  is  the  indicated  H.  P.  ? 

14.  In  what  manner  is  a  gain  realized  by  the  substitution  of  surface  for  jet  conden- 
sation ?    Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  surface  condensation  with  high-pressure  steam? 

15.  What  influence  has  the  introduction  of  surface  condensation  had  on  the  dura- 
bility of  marine  boilers ;  in  what  way  was  the  corroding  action  at  first  supposed  to  be 
set  up,  and  what  should  be  done  to  lessen  the  deterioration  of  the  boilers,  both  when 
in  use  and  when  not  in  use  ? 

16.  Enumerate  the  causes  which  produce  loss  of  efficiency  in  the  machinery  and  pro- 
peller of  a  ship,  and  give  approximately  the  amount  of  loss  due  to  each  of  these  causes. 

STEAM  AND   THE   STEAM  ENGINE. 

Examiner. — J.  WEIGHT,  Esq.. 

CLASS  A2. 

1.  Describe  the  action  of  the  steam  in  an  ordinary  engine,  and  also  in  a  compound 
engine,  and  give  sketches  of  indicator  diagrams  in  illustration  of  your  answers. 

2.  Whether  is  it  more  necessary  (sic)  for  the  sake  of  economy  of  fuel  to  steam-jacket 
the  cylinders  of  an  ordinary  engine  or  those  of  a  compound  engine,  the  initial  pressure 
of  steam  being  the  same  in  both  cases  ?    Give  the  reasons  for  your  answer. 

3.  Give  a  sketch  of  an  indicator  diagram  from  an  ordinary  engine,  explaining  by 
means  of  it  the  action  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder,  and  give  sketches  also  of  the  dia- 
grams you  would  expect  to  obtain  if  the  engines  were  out  of  order  from  various  causes. 

4.  Give  sketches  of  the  indicator  diagrams  from  a  compound  engine  with  one  high- 
pressure  and  one  low-pressure  cylinder  and  the  cranks  at  right  angles,  and  show  how 
you  would  calculate  the  horse-power  of  the  engine  from  the  diagrams. 

5.  The  indicator  diagram  of  an  ordinary  engine  shows  that  the  initial  pressure  of 
steam  was  30  Ibs.  above  and  the  pressure  at  release  5  Ibs.  below  the  atmospheric  line, 
back  pressure  3  Ibs.     What  would  be  the  mean  pressure,  and  how  much  would  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  steam  be  increased  by  expansion  ? 

6.  Communication  valves  and  pipes  are  now  sometimes  fitted  to  compound  engines 
to  allow  the  steam  to  be  admitted  directly  to  both  cylinders.     Give  a  sketch  of  any 
arrangement  of  this  kind  you  are  acquainted  with,  and  state  under  what  circumstances 
it  would  be  used. 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  derived  .from  surface  condensation'  as  compared  with 
jet  condensation,  and  what  disadvantages  may  arise,  from  the  use  of  the  former  ? 

8.  State  what  economy  you  would  expect  to  realize  by  heating  the  feed  water  from 
120°  to  200°  by  means  of  the  waste  heat  going  up  the  chimney. 

9.  Explain  the  action  of  the  link  motion  when  used  to  produce  a  variable  cut-off. 
Give  an  explanatory  diagram,  and  state  the  disadvantages  arising  from  the  use  of  the 
link  for  this  purpose. 

10.  What  is  meant  by  superheated  steam,  and  why  is  economy  obtained  by  super- 
heating ?    To  what  extent  may  superheating  be  safely  carried,  and  why  are  super- 
heaters now  seldom  fitted  to  high-pressure  boilers  ? 

11.  What  is  the  usual  amount  of  heating  surface  in  a  boiler,  and  the  amount  of  cool- 
ing surface  in  a  surface  condenser  per  I.  H.  P.  ? 

12.  What  are  the  several  sources  of  loss  and  waste  in  boilers  and  engines,  and  what 
is  done  in  each  case  in  practice  to  reduce  the  loss  and  waste  as  much  as  possible  ? 

PRACTICAL  ENGINEERING. 
Examiner. — J.  WRIGHT,  Esq. 

CLASS  A*. 

1.  Give  a  sketch  of  a  double-ported  slide  valve  and  the  relief  ring  on  its  back. 
Show  also  the  ports  in  the  cylinder  and  the  valve  in  the  proper  position  when  the 
piston  is  at  the  end  of  its  stroke. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  273 

2.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  outside  lap,  inside  lap,  lead,  and  angular  advance. 

3.  Give  a  sketch  and  description  of  the  link  motion,  and  state  how  you  would  pro- 
ceed to  set  properly  a  slide  valve  worked  by  this  motion. 

4.  What  description  of  expansion  valve  do  you  consider  the  best  for  the  engines  of 
a  ship  of  war  ?    State  the  reasons  for  your  opinion. 

5.  Give  a  sketch  and  description  of  any  plan  of  auxilary  valves  for  facilitating  the 
starting  of  engines. 

6.  Give  a  sketch  of  a  connecting  rod,  showing  the  crank-pin  end,  brasses,  and  bolts 
in  detail,  with  approximate  figured  dimensions  for  a  crank-pin  12  inches  diameter. 

7.  What  would  you  do  to  ascertain  whether  a  line  of  propeller  shafting  is  true,  and 
also  whether  the  propeller  shafting  is  true  with  the  crank  shaft  of  the  engines  ? 

8.  In  the  same  line  of  propeller  shafting  one  part  is  of  iron  solid,  and  another  of 
steel  hollow,  and  both  parts  are  of  the  same  external  diameter.     What  should  be  the 
diameter  of  the  hole  through  the  steel  shaft  to  make  it  of  the  same  strength  as  the 
iron  shaft,  the  relative  strengths  of  the  materials  being  as  two  to  one  ? 

9.  Give  a  sketch  and  description  of  the  kind  of  lubricator  you  consider  the  best  for 
the  crank-pin  of  a  horizontal  engine. 

10.  If  a  bad  vacuum  were  found  to  exist  in  a  surface  condenser  when  the  engines 
are  at  work,  what  would  you  do  to  endeavor  to  find  the  cause  of  it  ? 

11.  How  would  you  clean  a  surface  condenser  in  which  the  steam  is  condensed 
inside  the  tubes  when  it  becomes  dirty  ? 

12.  Wrhy  is  mineral  oil  now  used  for  the  lubrication  of  slide  valves  and  cylinders, 
and  what  drawbacks  attend  the  use  of  this  oil  ? 

13.  Give  a  rough  sketch  of  a  circular  high-pressure  boiler  with  two  furnaces  and 
the  tubes  over  the  furnaces,  and  show  on  it  the  positions  of  the  various  mountings, 
including  two  water  gauges  and  two  steaui  gauges. 

14.  Give  a  sketch,  with  figured  dimensions,  showing  the  stays  yon  would  fit  for  the 
back  and  top  of  the  combustion  chamber  of  such  a  boiler  as  the  above. 

15.  Give  a  sketch  of  the  usual  kind  of  spring-loaded  safety  valve  now  adopted  for 
high-pressure  boilers.     Why  is  a  spring  better  than  a  lead  weight  ? 

16.  When  boilers  supply  steam  for  engines  with  surface  condensers,  what  causes 
prevent  the  return  to  the  boilers  of  all  the  water  evaporated,  and  how  is  any  de- 
ficiency of  feed  water  made  up  ? 

17.  What  measures  should  be  adopted  for  the  preservation  of  marine  boilers  when 
they  are  not  in  use  ? 

18.  How  can  the  rate  of  combustion  of  coal  in  marine  boilers  be  regulated  and  how 
can  it  be  forced  ?    What  weight  of  coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  can  be  burned 
per  hour  at  the  highest  rate  ? 

THE   THEORY   OF   THE   STEAM   EXGIXE. 

Examiner. — Prof.  ALEX.  B.  W.  KENNEDY. 

CLASS  Ai. 

1.  How  much  heat  must  be  expended  in  raising  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  air 
from  700°  to  1200°  Fahr.  at  constant  pressure,  and  how  much  of  this  heat  goes  to  in- 
crease the  internal  energy  of  the  gas  ? 

2.  Given  the  values  of  the  specific  heat  of  air  at  constant  volume  and  pressure,  de- 
duce from  them  the  value  of  J.   (One  cubic  foot  of  air  at  atmospheric  pressure  and  32° 
Fahr.  weighs  0.0807  pounds.) 

3.  Show  how  to  represent  graphically  the  whole  amount  of  heat  (spent  in  internal 
as  well  as  in  external  work)  expended  in  any  operation  performed  on  a  given  quantity 
of  air.     Show  how  your  construction  applies  to  the  cases  in  which  either  external  or 

nternal  work  becomes  zero. 

4.  The  efficiency  of  an  air  engine  is  not  affected  by  the  ratio  of  expansion  used  in  it, 
a  quantity  which  is,  however,  of  vital  importance  in  connection  with  the  efficiency  of 
a  steam  engine.     Explain  this. 

S.  Ex.  51 18 


274  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

5.  Supposing  steam  to  be  «i  perfect  gas,  give  au  expression  for  the  constant  j»w;  com- 
pare values  thus  obtained  \vith  those  given  by  the  formulas  representing  the  results  of 
actual  experiment. 

6.  The  saturation  curve  of  a  given  weight  of  steam  may  be  drawn  as  an  hyperbola ; 
give  the  formula  which  shows  this,  and  say  how  the  asymptotes  may  be  determined 
in  a  given  case. 

7.  If  steam  be  admitted  to  a  cylinder  and  expanded  r  times,  and  the  equation  to 

the  expansion  curve  be  pvn=  constant,  show  that  the  total  work  which  can  be  done 
during  admission  and  expansion  may  be  represented  by — 


—  n   sy    1  J 


where  p\  and  p3  are  the  initial  and  back  pressures  respectively. 

8.  Give  some  explanation  of  the  immense  rapidity  with  which  steam  is  condensed 
on  the  walls  of  a  steam-engine  cylinder. 

9.  It  is  required  to  carry  out  a  thorough  test  of  a  common  steam  engine  working 
with  a  jet  condenser.     What  are  the  principal  quantities  which  will  have  to  be 
measured  for  the  purposes  of  the  test  ? 

10.  If  the  temperature  of  the  injection  in  such  a  case  be  45°,  and  that  of  the  dis- 
charge 88°  Fahr.,  the  total  discharge  200  pounds  per  minute,  and  the  absolute  press- 
ure (obtained  from  the  vacuum  gauge)  2.9  pounds  per  square  inch,  find  approxi- 
mately the  quantity  of  steam  condensed  per  minute. 

11.  State  what  you  know  as  to  the  nature  and  eifect  of  the  free  expansion  which 
usually  occurs  during  some  part  of  the  stroke  of  a  compound  engine. 

12.  Describe  accurately  what  takes  place  when  steam  is  "wire-drawn,"  and  inves- 
tigate this  phenomenon  in  connection  with  its  drying  eifect  upon  wet  steam. 

STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS   AND   STRUCTURES. 
Examiner. — Prof.  "W.  C.  UNWIN. 
CLASS  AI. 

1.  Let  AB,  BC  be  two  straight  or  curved  rafters  of  a  roof,  assumed  to  be  hinged  at 
the  springings  A  and  C  and  at  the  ridge  B.     A  force  acts  on  AB,  its  direction  passing 
between  A  and  C.     Find,  graphically,  the  reactions  at  the  springings,  and,  for  the  case 
when  the  rafters  are  straight,  the  bending  moment  at  any  point  of  the  rafters. 

2.  Find  by  a  diagram  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  5-sided  frame  of  bars  of  uniform 
section.  • 

3.  Let  AB,  BC  be  the  rafters  of  a  braced  roof  truss;  ADEC  the  polygonal  tie  rod; 
DB,  EB,  the  bracing  bars,  and  DF,  DG,  struts  at  the  centers  of  the  rafters.     Suppose 
a  horizontal  force  P,  applied  at  F  the  center  of  the  rafter  AB.     Draw  a  stress  diagram, 
distinguishing  tension  bars  from  compression  bars. 

4.  Let  AB  be  two  points  on  the  same  level  between  which  a  cord  is  suspended. 
Weights  Wi,  W2,  W3,  W4  are  hung  on  the  cord  at  given  distances  from  A,  measured 
horizontally.     Draw  the  position  of  the  cord  when  the  tension  at  A  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  loads. 

5.  Show  that  the  best  form  of  cross-section  for  a  deep  sewer  is  an  ellipse.     If  0  is  the 
angle  of  repose  of  the  soil,  show  that  the  horizontal  and  vertical  axes  of  the  ellipse 


should  have  the  ratio     /  (  } ™1L*\ 

y    VI  +  am  <j>J 


6.  State  what  forms  of  cross-section  are  adopted  for  the  struts  of  wrought  iron  and 
cast  iron,  and  give  reasons  for  the  selection  of  these  forms. 

7.  Find  the  greatest  twisting  moment  which  can-be  applied  to  a  shaft  100  feet  long 
and  3  inches  diameter,  the  angle  of  torsion  not  exceeding  1°.     Modulus  of  transverse 
elasticity  10, '00, 000. 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS  —  GREENWICH.  275 

8.  Show  that  for  equal  values  of  the  limiting  stress  the  resistance  of  a  cylinder  to 
twisting  is  double  its  resistance  to  breaking  across. 

9.  Two  bars  of  equal  section  and  of  the  same  material  are  employed  to  support  a 
load.     One  bar  is  attached  to  an  unyielding  support  10  feet  above  the  load,  the  other 
to  a  similar  support  25  feet  above  the  load.     Determine  the  ratio  of  the  stresses  in  the 
bars. 

10.  Give  a  short  account  of  Wohler's  experiments  on  the  ultimate  resistance  of  ma- 
terials, and  state  what  inferences  have  been  drawn  from  them  as  to  the  safe  working 
stress  of  structures. 

11.  How  can  columns  be  divided  into  classes  according  to  the  proportion  of  length 
to  diameter  ?    State  how  in  each  case  the  column  gives  way  when  loaded,  and  give 
the  formulae  suitable  for  calculating  their  strength. 

12.  State  the  conclusions  at  which  Styffe  has  arrived  as  to  the  influence  of  the  per- 
centage of  carbon  in  steel  on  the  strength,   ductility,   and  capability  of  welding. 
State  also  the  influence  of  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  silicon  on  the  properties  of  steel. 

13.  What  is  the  resistance  of  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  10  feet  long  and  2  inches  diame- 
ter, the  proof  load   being   15  tons  per  square  inch,  and  the  modulus  of  elasticity 
29,000,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  ? 

14.  Would  the  deflection  be  greater  for  a  round  or  square  beam,  of  equal  sectional 
areas,  and  loaded  to  the  same  intensity  of  stress  ? 

STRENGTH   OF   MATERIALS  AXD   STRUCTURES. 

Examiner.—  T.  A.  HEARSON,  Esq.,  R.N.,  F.K.S.N.A. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.    Voluntary  students. 

1.  Describe  the  five  simple  straining  actions  or  ways  in  which  a  piece  of  material 
may  be  broken. 

If  a  bar  be  fastened  into  the  ground  in  a  sloping  direction  and  a  weight  suspended 
from  the  upper  end,  what  are  the  straining  actions  at  any  transverse  section  of  the 
bar? 

2.  A  simple  triangular  frame  with  tie  bar  horizontal,  carries  a  load  at  the  vertex. 
Describe  how  to  draw  a  diagram  representing  the  forces  on  the  different  parts  of  the 
frame,  and  show  that  the  supporting  forces  are  also  represented  in  the  same  diagram. 

Show  that  the  tension  of  the  tie  rod 


=  iload  x 

height  ot  frame. 

3.  Describe  and  make  sketches  showing  three  different  ways  in  which  a  loaded  beam 
supported  at  the  ends  may  be  strengthened  by  supporting  it  at  more  than  one  inter- 
mediate point. 

4.  Describe  the  common  suspension  bridge. 

The  platform  of  a  bridge  200  feet  long  and  24  feet  wide  is  loaded  with  47  pounds  per 
square  foot.  It  is  carried  by  a  pair  of  suspension  chains,  which,  at  the  center,  dip  18 
feet  below  the  tops  of  the  piers.  Fiud'the  tension  of  the  chain  at  the  lowest  point. 

5.  A  beam  is  supported  at  the  ends  and  loaded  uniformly  ;  show  that  the  greatest 
bending  moment  on  it  is  half  what  it  is  when  the  same  load  is  concentrated  at  the 
center. 

Draw  a  diagram  representing  the  bending  moment  at  any  point  of  the  beam  in  each 
case. 

6.  A  steady  load  of  3  tons  is  carried  by  a  bar  1J  inches  diameter.     What  is  the  in- 
tensity of  the  stress  produced  ? 

Suppose  an  additional  load  of  2  tons  suddenly  applied,  what  will  be  the  total  stress 
produced  ? 

7.  Draw  and  describe  a  diagram  representing  the  extension  of  a  wrought-iron  bar 
under  a  gradually  increasing  load,  stating  the  proof  load  and  the  breaking  load. 

Point  out  on  the  diagram  how  much  work  is  required  to  stretch  a  bar  to  its  elastic 
limit,  and  how  much  is  required  to  produce  rupture. 


276  NAVAL   EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

APPLIED  MECHANICS:  FIRST  PAPER. 

Examiner.— Prof.  ALEX.  B.  "W.  KENNEDY. 

Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  first  year. 

1.  Compare  a  suspension  bridge,  a  bowstring  girder,  and  an  arch  as  to  their  stress 
conditions  under  a  stationary  load,  uniformly  distributed. 

2.  There  is  in  general  both  shear  and  bending  moment  at  every  section  of  a  beam. 
What  is  the^relation  between  them  ?    What  is  the  condition  that  there  may  be  (a) 
only  shear,  (&)  only  bending  moment  at  any  particular  section  ? 

3.  How  must  a  pair  of  pulleys  on  shafts  which  are  neither  parallel  nor  intersecting 
be  placed  so  that  one  may  drive  the  other  direct  by  a  strap  ? 

4.  Given  the  position  of  two  intersecting  axes,  show  how  to  find  the  diameters  of  a 
pair  of  bevel  wheels  to  transmit  a  given  velocity  ratio  from  one  to  the  other. 

t>  5.  The  tup  of  a  steam  hammer  weighs  500  pounds.  It  strikes  a  piece  of  iron  2  inches 
thick  at  a  velocity  of  12  feet  per  second  and  compresses  it  to  1  inch.  Find  the  mean 
pressure  on  the  iron  while  it  was  being  compressed. 

6.  Supposing  a  crank  to  revolve  uniformly,  how  is  the  velocity  of  a  pump  plunger, 
worked  by  it,  affected  by  the  length  of  the  connecting  rod  by  which  it  is  driven  ? 
Show  how  to  obtain  the  relative  velocities  of  the  plunger  and  the  crank  pin  at  any 
instant. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  efficiency"  of  a  sliding  piece?     Show  how  to  obtain  the 
efficiency  of  a  piston-rod  guide  block,  fully  proving  the  construction  which  you  use. 

8.  Distinguish  between  the  effects  of  (a)  a  stationary  load,  (&)  a  load  applied  sud- 
denly but  without  impact,  and  (c)  a  blow,  in  straining  a  beam. 

9.  A  bar  of  wrought  iron  2  inches  square  is  120  inches  long  when  unstrained.     The 
modulus  of  elasticity  of  the  material  is  22,000,000  pounds  per  square  inch.    What  will 
be  the  length  of  the  bar  when  a  load  of  25  tons  is  suspended  from  it  ? 

10.  A  floor  joist  12  feet  long  carries  a  uniformly  distributed  load  of  9  cwt.     The  joist 
is  12  inches  deep  by  3  inches  thick.     Find  the  maximum  intensity  of  the  stress  in  it. 

11.  The  area  of  the  stream  driven  backwards  by  a  pair  of  paddle  wheels  is  24  square 
feet,  and  its  velocity,  relative  to  the  ship,  7  feet  per  second.     What  is  the  resistance 
of  the  vessel  ? 

12.  Water  issues  from  an  orifice  at  a  velocity  of  12  feet  per  second,  under  a  head  of  5 
feet.     Find  the  coefficient  of  resistance. 

APPLIED  MECHANICS:  SECOND  PAPER. 

Examiner.—  Prof.  ALEX.  B.  "W.  KENNEDY. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  first  year. 

1.  Show  how  to  construct  a  polygon  whose  ordinates  represent  the  bending  moments 
along  a  beam  under  a  given  system  of  concentrated  loads.     What  is  the  relation  of 
this  polygon  to  the  form  which  any  flexible  chain,  hanging  from  the  supports  of  the 
beam,  would  take  under  the  same  loads  ? 

2.  Show  that  the  shear  in  a  beam  changes  sign  where  the  bending  moment  is  a 
maximum. 

3.  Prove  the  form  of  uniform  strength  for  a  beam  supported  at  one  end  and  loaded 
uniformly  (a)  if  its  depth  be  constant,  (6)  if  its  breadth  be  constant. 

4.  How  would  you  compare,  as  to  relative  strength  and  weight,  two  beams  of  the 
same  length  and  the  same  extreme  breadth  and  depth,  but  one  solid  and  the  other  I- 
shaped? 

5.  A  shaft  2.5  inches  diameter  and  50  inches  long  works  under  a  twisting  moment 
of  13,200  inch-pounds.     What  will  be  the  linear  displacement,  under  this  moment,  of 
a  point  at  a  radius  of  10  inches,  upon  a  lever  fixed  to  the  further  end  of  the  shaft  ? 

6.  What  are  the  essential  conditions  which  should  be  fulfilled  by  the  surfaces  of 
•wheel-teeth  ? 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS GREENWICH.  277 

7.  A  Cornish  (non-rotary)  engine  has  a  cylinder  40  inches  diameter,  and  in  its  down- 
ward stroke  lifts  pitwork  which  weighs  15,030  pounds.     The  mean  steam  pressure  on 
the  piston  during  the  period  of  acceleration  is  25  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  during 
the  retardation  12  pounds  per  square  inch.     The  maximum  velocity  is  attained  when 
the  piston  has  traveled  2  feet.     Find  (a)  the  length  of  the  stroke  made,  (Z>)  the  maxi- 
mum velocity  of  the  piston.     (Neglect  all  weights  except  that  of  the  load  mentioned. ) 

8.  Distinguish  between  the  action  of  a  governor  and  a  fly-wheel  as  regulators  of  the 
speed  of  an  engine.     What  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  good  governor  ? 

9.  On  the  assumption  that  the  crank-pin  of  an  engine  rotates  uniformly  and  that  its 
connecting-rod  is  infinitely  long,  show  that  the  resistance  due  to  the  acceleration  of 
the  reciprocating  parts  varies  as  the  cosine  of  the  angle  between  the  crank  and  the 
axis  of  the  engine.     How  is  this  modified  if  a  short  connecting-rod  be  employed  ? 

10.  What  are  the  relative  positions  of  crank,  connecting-rod,  and  cross-head  in  an 
ordinary  engine  when  (a)  the  velocities  of  the  crank-pin  and  cross-head  are  equal,  (b) 
the  velocity  of  the  cross-head  is  a  maximum  ? 

11.  Show  how  to  determine  the  efficiency  of  a  square-threaded  screw.    Prove  that  it 
becomes  infinite  when  the  pitch  angle  is  either  0  or  $  (the  angle  whose  tangent  is 
equal  to  the  coefficient  of  friction). 

12.  Calculate  the  quantity  of  water  delivered  per  second  by  a  pipe  20  inches  in  di- 
ameter and  2,000  feet  long,  under  a  head  of  25  feet.     State  the  conditions  to  which 
the  coefficient  of  friction  which  you  adopt  applies. 

APPLIED   MECHANICS.    I. 

Examiner.— Prof.  W.  C.  TJxwix. 

Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  second  and  third  years. 

1.  An  oscillating  engine  has  a  stroke  of  10  feet,  the  trunnions  being  at  the  center  of 
the  cylinder,  and  distant  15  feet  from  the  centerof  the  crank-shaft.     Velocity  of  crank- 
pin  420  feet  pet  minute.     Find  the  angular  velocity  of  the  cylinder  when  the  crank  is 
at  one  dead  point,  at  45°  from  the  dead  point,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  piston  rod. 

2.  Give  a  graphic  construction  for  the  curve  of  kinetic  energy  of  a  heavy  piston 
driven  by  a  uniformly  rotating  crank. 

3.  Suppose  that  the  velocity  curve  of  a  heavy  machine  part  is  drawn.     Show  that 
the  subnormal  of  the  velocity  curve  is  proportional  to  the  acceleration  of  the  machine 
part  at  the  corresponding  instant  of  the  motion. 

4.  Suppose  the  work  done  on  the  piston  of  an  engine  to  be  represented  by  an  indi- 
cator diagram.     Show  how  you  would  infer  from  it  the  weight  necessary  in  the  fly- 
wheel rim  to  control  the  fluctuation  of  speed  within  a  given  limit. 

5.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  belting  as  a  means  of  communi- 
cating motion  ?    Sketch  the  different  forms  of  pulley  used  with  different  kinds  of  belt. 

6.  Show  that  a  crossed  belt  adapted  for  one  pair  of  pulleys  of  stepped  cones,  is  of 
the  right  length  for  any  other  pair,  if  the  sum  of  the  radii  of  each  pair  is  the  same. 

7.  A  belt  connects  two  shafts,  and  when  running  the  tensions  are  P  and  2  P  on  the 
tight  and  slack  sides  of  the  belt.    Assuming  the  radii  of  the  shafts  to  be  p\  and  p3,  and 
those  of  the  pulleys  to  be  Ri  and  R2,  show  that  the  fraction  of  the  work  transmitted 
which  is  wasted  in  journal  friction  is — 

Sft 

8.  The  gearing  of  a  crane  is  arranged  thus : 

Winch  handle  17  ins.  radius  on  first  shaft ; 

Pinion  4-J  ins.  diam.  on  first  shaft  gearing  into  wheel,  30  ins.  diam.  on  second 

shaft ; 
Pinion  6  ins.  diam.  on  seco:id  shaft  gearing  into  wheel,  35  ins.  diam.  on  barrel 

shaft ; 
Chain  barrel  16  ins.  diam. 


278  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Find  the  weight  which  would  be  raised  by  two  men  exerting  a  mean  force  of  30  Ibs. 
each  at  the  winch  handle,  and  the  pressure  on  the  belt  of  each  pair  of  wheels.  Fric- 
tion may  be  neglected. 

9.  A  lock  gate  is  supported  on  a  flat  pivot  under  the  heelpost,  and  held  in  place  by 
a  cylindrical  bearing  at  the  top  of  the  heelpost.    The  pivot  is  6  ins.  diameter,  and  the 
cylindrical  top  bearing  12  ins.  diameter.     Vertical  pressure  on  piA'ot  2  tons.     Hori- 
zontal pressure  on  pivot  and  upper  bearing  5  cwt.  each.     Coefficient  of  friction  0.2. 
Find  the  force  which  must  be  applied  at  12  feet  radius  to  move  the  gate.  • 

10.  Show  that  when  the  pitch  circles  of  two  wheels  with  epicycloidal  teeth  roll  in 
contact  through  a  small  arc  ds,  the  tooth  of  one  slides  a  distance 

i  +  i 

on  the  tooth  of  the  other,  p  being  the  distance  of  the  point  of  contact  from  the  pitch 
point. 

11.  Assuming  the  accumulated  work  in  the  reciprocating  parts  of  a  pair  of  engines, 
coupled  at  right  angles,  to  be  approximately  constant,  find  an  expression  for  the 
weight  placed  in  the  fly-wheel  rim  to  which  the  reciprocating  parts  are  equivalent, 
as  regards  their  influence  in  moderating  fluctuation  of  speed. 

12.  A  pendulum  governor  works  at  a  normal  height  of  h  feet,  and  ranges  through  a 
height  n  h  above  and  below  its  mean  position.     Show  that  the  ratio  of  greatest  and 
least  speed  is 


Ni  _       '/ 

TS3—    -\J 


I    +    n 
l--n 


13.  Draw  a  tooth  for  a  cycloidal-toothed  wheel  of  12  ins.  diameter,  with  12  teeth; 
rolling  circle  6  ins.  diameter.     Addendum  and  Root  circles  14  ins.  and  9£  ins.  diame- 
ter. 

14.  Taking  the  weight  of  belting  at  1|  Ibs.  per  sq.  foot,  find  the  tension  in  a  belt 
running  at  30  feet  per  second,  due  to  centrifugal  force. 

15.  One  spur  wheel  drives  another  through  an  intermediate  or  idle  wheel.     Show 
that  the  pressure  of  the  intermediate  wheel  on  its  supports  is  proportional  to  the  work 
transmitted.    Hence  show  that  the  arrangement  can  be  used  as  a  dynamometer. 

APPLIED   MECHANICS.    II. 

Examiner.— Prof.  W.  C.  TJxwix. 

Students  of  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  second  and  third  years. 

1.  Distinguish  between  Young's  modulus,  and  the  moduli  of  direct  and  lateral  elas- 
ticity. 

Show  that  in  an  isotropic  solid 

v       A          2B* 

E=A-A+B 

2.  A  bar  is  subjected  to  a  bending  and  twisting  moment  acting  at  the  same  time. 
Deduce  a  formula  for  a  bending  moment  equivalent  to  the  two  moments. 

A  shaft,  of  circular  section,  weighing  G  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  transmits  a  twisting 
moment  T.  Express  in  a  formula  the  bending  moment  equivalent  to  the  combined 
bending  and  twisting  moments  to  which  it  is  subjected. 

3.  Find  the  stress  at  any  point  of  a  thick  hollow  cylinder  under  internal  fluid  press- 
ure. 

A  thick  cylinder  1  foot  in  internal  and  2  feet  in  external  diameter  is  subjected  to  an 
internal  fluid  pressure  of  20  tons  per  sq.  in.  Find  the  change  of  external  and  inter- 
nal diameter.  Modulus  of  elasticity  30,000,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

4.  The  velocity  of  water  issuing  from  an  orifice  is  found  to  be  30  feet  per  second, 
the  head  above  the  center  of  the  orifice  being  20  feet.     Find  the  coefficients  of  resist- 
ance and  velocity. 


EXAMINATION  PAPERS  -  GREENWICH.          279 

5.  State  how  the  friction  of  water  flowing  over  solid  surfaces  varies  with  variation 
of  area  and  quality  of  surface  and  with  the  velocity. 

6.  The  frictional  resistance  of  a  pipe  is  1  Ib.  per  square  foot  of  surface  at  a  velocity 
of  10  feet  per  second,  and  varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity.     Thence  determine  the 
flow  through  a  circular  pipe  1  foot  in  diameter  connecting  two  reservoirs,  1  mile  apart, 
and  having  5  feet  difference  of  surface  level. 

7.  Show  that  on  a  probable  assumption  as  to  the  relative  friction  of  the  fluid  fila- 
ments, the  curve  of  velocities  for  a  vertical  in  an  indefinitely  wide  stream,  is  a  parabola. 

8.  A  jet  of  water  4  ins.  diameter  impinges  on  a  fixed  cone,  the  axis  coinciding  with 
that  of  the  jet,  and  the  apex  angle  being  30°,  at  a  velocity  of  10  feet  per  second. 
Find  the  pressure  tending  to  move  the  cone. 

9.  Given  the  speed,  the  form  of  vanes,  and  dimensions  of  a  turbine  wheel,  and  the 
direction  of  motion  and  velocity  of  the  entering  water;  show  how  to  determine  the 
absolute  path  of  the  water  through  the  wheel. 

10.  An  overshot  wheel  is  to  be  designed  for  a  supply  of  30  cub.  ft.  per  second  on  a 
fall  of  24  feet.     State  how  you  would  determine  the  diameter  and  the  size  of  the 
buckets  of  the  wheel,  and  what  power  you  would  expect  to  obtain. 

11.  Show  that  in  any  turbine 

77tfH  =  iriVi  —  M-O  V0 

where  rj  is  the  efficiency,  H  the  fall,  w\  and  Vj  the  whirling  velocity  of  the  water  and 
the  velocity  of  the  -wheel  at  the  point  where  the  water  enters,  and  ir0,  V0,  the  same 
quantities  at  the  point  where  the  water  is  discharged.  Hence  show  that  in  well-de- 
signed turbines 

77  g  H  =  Wi  Vi  very  nearly. 

12.  Show  that  the  difference  of  pressure  head  at  two  points  in  a  forced  vortsx,  in 
which  all  the  particles  have  equal  angular  velocities,  is  — 


«i,  i'-2  being  the  velocities  of  the  water  at  the  two  points  in  the  vortex. 

SHIP  DESIGN  AND  CALCULATION. 
Examiner.  —  N.  BARXABY,  Esq. 

CLASSES  AI  and  A.2. 
(The  numbers  in  parentheses  indicate  the  relative  values  of  the  questions.) 

1.  Describe  the  process  by  which  the  position  of  the  center  of  buoyancy  is  obtained. 
<20) 

2.  What  are  the  relative  positions  of  the  center  of  buoyancy  and  the  center  of  press- 
ure of  the  vertical  fluid  forces  in  a  vessel  floating  at  rest?     (10) 

3.  How  would  you  calculate  the  position  of  the  center  of  pressure  of  the  vertical 
fluid  forces  in  a  ship  ?     (30) 

4.  Show  how  the  relative  positions  of  the  metacenter,  center  of  buoyancy,  and  center 
of  gravity,  under  different  conditions  of  lading,  may  be  conveniently  represented  on  a 
diagram.     (15) 

5.  Investigate  and  explain  fully  the  formula  for  dynamical  stability  now  in  common 
use,  first  determined  by  Canon  Moseley.     (35) 

6.  Describe  in  general  terms  the  nature  of  the  calculation  for  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  statical  stability  of  a  ship,  in  foot-tons,  at  a  given  angle  of  inclination. 
(40) 

7.  A  certain  ship  reaches  her  position  of  greatest  stability  at  35°,  and  her  stability 
vanishes  at  85°.     If  she  be  inclined  under  her  canvas  to  25°,  about  how  far  would  she 
require  to  roll  in  smooth  water  in  order  to  capsize  under  the  pressure  of  the  canvas,  if 
the  reduction  in  the  pressure  of  the  wind  due  to  greater  inclination  be  disregarded? 
<20) 


280  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

8.  A  curve  of  stability  being  given,  how  would  you  ascertain  the  reserve  of  energy 
beyond  a  given  angle  of  heel,  under  sail,  to  resist  upsetting?     (40) 

9.  Distinguish  between  the  statical  and  dynamical  stabilities  of  a  vessel,  and  express 
one  in  terms  of  the  other.     Find  the  dynamical  stability  of  a  prismatic  vessel  at  a  given 
angle  of  heel,  the  section  being  a  semicircle,  and  the  density  of  the  prism  f  of  the  fluid 
in  which  it  floats.     (50) 

10.  How  is  the  stability  of  a  vessel  affected  by  the  presence  of  free  water  in  the 
bilge?    (15) 

11.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  fluid  resistances  encountered  by  a  ship  passing  through 
smooth  water?    What  is  your  estimate  of  their  relative  importance?     (40) 

12.  Describe  the  peculiarities  of  various  forms  of  screw-propeller  with  which  you 
may  be  acquainted,  and  give  the  reason  for  anv  advantage  they  may  appear  to  possess. 
(40) 

13.  Having  the  following  data,  determine  the  measured  mile  speed  of  a  ship.     (20) 
Displacement 8,  000  tons. 

Area  of  immersed  midship  section 1,200  square  feet 

Indicated  horse-power 7,  500 

Coefficients  of  performance  \  Jor  displacement 170 

{  lor  midship  section 515 

14.  Calculate  the  horse-power  that  must  be  developed  by  the  engines  of  this  ship 
when  she  is  steaming  12  knots  per  hour,  supposing  the  coefficients  of  performance  to 
be  180  and  550,  respectively.     (20) 

15.  Describe  the  operations  of  "tacking"  and  "wearing"  in  a  vessel  with  ship 
rig.     (30) 

16.  Describe  the  broad  features  of  the  design  of  some  one  modern  ironclad  ship, 
giving  her  name;  and  also  of  some  one  unarniored  ship  of  war.     (40) 

LAYING   OFF. 

Examiner. — N.  BAKNABV,  Esq. 
CLASS  A2. 

(The  numbers  in  parentheses  indicate  the  relative  values  of  the  que-stions.) 

1.  Describe  the  method  of  getting  in  the  deck  lines  at  the  ship.     (30) 

2.  Describe  the  method  of  laying  off  a  harpin  placed  just  above  the  knuckle,  and 
having  the  same  round-down  and  sheer  as  the  knuckle.     (35) 

3.  How  would  you  obtain  on  the  sheer  drawing  the  projections  of  the  transverse 
sections  and  water  lines  at  the  outside  of  the  planking,  from  those  ordinarily  given  at 
the  inside  of  the  planking  or  outside  of  the  timbers  ?     (20) 

4.  How  do  you  obtain  a  point  in  the  middle  of  the  rabbet  of  a  tapering  stem  in  a 
wood  ship?     (15) 

5.  When  level  lines  and  sheer  lines  are  ended  in  the  half-breadth  plan  at  the  back 
of  a  circle  swept  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  plank,  what  is  the 
nature  of  the  inaccuracy  in  the  formation  of  the  rabbet  of  stem  so  obtained,    and 
with  what  form  and  direction  of  the  fore  edge  of  rabbet  of  stem  would  this  plan  be 
strictly  accurate  ?     (15) 

6.  How  would  you  define  the  "joint"  of  a  frame,  and  how  would  you  obtain  the 
bevelings  of  the  timbers  on  each  side  of  a  joint  in  the  square  body  of  a  wood  ship  ?     (10) 

7.  What  sections  are  shown  in  their  true  form  in  the  half-breadth  plan,  and  what 
in  projection  only  ?     (15) 

8.  Show  by  a  sketch  (in  half-breadth  plan)  how  the  frames  at  the  fore  and  after  parts 
of  an  iron  ship  are  disposed.     (30) 

9.  State  what  means  are  adopted  for  obtaining  an  account  of  the  plates  of  the  bot- 
tom of  an  iron  ship  for  the  purpose  of  demanding  them  of  the  manufacturer.     (30) 

10.  How  are  armor  plates  shaped  and  bent  to  form  ?     Give  the  complete  account  of 
the  operation  both  for  a  plate  with  sn  a1!  curvature,  and  for  a  plate  with  considerable 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  281 

curvature  and  twist,  commencing  with  the  preparation  of  the  specification  for  the  man- 
ufacturer.    (45) 

PRACTICAL,  SHIPBUILDING. 
Examiner. — 2J".  BAKXABY,  Esq. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  torpedo  and  gunnery  officers.     Voluntary  students. 
(The  numbers  in  parentheses  indicate  the  relative  values  of  the  questions.) 

1.  Show,  by  sketches,  the  nature  of  the  receptacles  in  which  bilge  water  will  ac- 
cumulate, if  allowed  to  do  so,  in  a  wood  ship,  a  composite  ship,  and  an  iron  ship.   (50) 

2.  What  are  the  injurious  effects  of  such  accumulations  in  the  three  cases?     (40) 

3.  Show,  by  sketches,  how  the  ribs  and  skins  of  composite  ships  are  fastened  to- 
gether, and  state  the  nature  of  materials  used,  and  their  dimensions.     (50) 

4.  What  is  the  nature  and  composition  of  the  cement  and  paint  used  in  the  bilges 
of  iron  and  of  composite  ships  ?     (50) 

5.  Name  and  sketch  the  different  parts  of  anchor  gear  required  for  letting-go, 
riding,  and  Aveighing.     (50) 

6.  Show,  by  sketches,  the  most  approved  plans  of  lowering  and  releasing  boats.    (50) 

7.  Compare,  for  a  given  time,  the  quantities  of  water  which  a  9-inch  Downton's 
pump  worked  by  hand  will  throw,  and  the  quantity  which  would  flow  in  by  a  round 
hole  one  foot  in  diameter,  10  feet  under  water.     (50) 

8.  State  briefly  the  ventilating  arrangements  in  an  iron  steamship  of  war,  includ- 
ing those  for  the  magazines.     (35) 

9.  Describe  the  arrangements  for  steering  by  steam,  and  the  mode  of  passing  from 
steam  to  hand  power.     (35) 

10.  How  are  lightning  conductors  fitted  ?     (40) 

11.  Show  the  positions,  by  sketch,  of  the  transverse  water-tight  bulkheads  in  a 
composite  ship.     State  the  thickness  of  plates  used,  and  how  the  bulkheads  are  put 
together  and  stiffened.     (50) 

12.  How  are  the  stringers  and  gutter  waterways  placed  in  a  composite  ship ;  what 
are  their  uses ;  and  how  are  they  secured  in  place?    (50) 

13.  What  are  the  structural  differences  betAveen  the  "Opal  "and  "Comus"  classes 
of  corvettes  in  Her  Majesty's  navy,  and  what  do  you  consider  the  relative  advantages 
to  be  ?    (50) 

PRACTICAL  SHIPBUILDING. 
Examiner. — X.  BAKNAHY,  Esq. 

Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering. 
(The  numbers  in  parentheses  indicate  the  relative  values  of  the  questions.) 

Engineers  are  only  expected  to  answer  the  questions  marked  with  a  star.     Naval  archi- 
tects may  answer  all  if  time  permit. 

1."  Sketch  (full  size)  a  section  along  and  across  the  line  of  rivets  of  an  ordinary  lap 
of  double-riveted  bottom  plating,  and  of  a  high-pressure  and  low-pressure  boiler.  (40) 

2.  Show  by  sketches  how  a  stealer  is  worked  in  an  inside  and  in  an  outside  strake  of 
plating.  (40) 

3.*  In  any  case  of  doubt  as  to  whether  the  surfaces  at  the  riveted  work  are  well 
closed  by  the  rivets,  how  would  you  test  the  work  ?  (25) 

4.*  Supposing  two  plates  to  be  unitetl  by  double  butt  straps,  treble  riveted,  the 
intermediate  rivets  in  the  front  and  back  rows  being  omitted,  show  by  sketches  the 
several  ways  in  which  the  plates  may  be  torn  asunder,  and  point  out  in  each  case  the 
amount  of  iron  broken  and  sheared.  (35) 

5.*  What  are  the  practical  limitations  to  the  proportion  between  the  diameter  of 
rivets  and  the  thickness  of  plates  they  connect  ?  (25) 

6.*  Describe  by  sketches  a  drift  punch,  a  rimer,  and  a  rose  drill,  and  describe  their 
uses  in  plating.  (30) 


282  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

7.*  What  is  the  process  of  annealing  a  steel  plate ;  under  what  circumstances  is  this 
operation  performed,  and  what  are  the  effects  produced  ?  (25) 

8.  In  what  cases  would  you  treble  rivet  the  butts  of  bottom  plating  in  an  iron 
ship?  (15) 

9.*  What  are  the  uses  of  an  inside  middle-line  keel  in  an  iron  and  in  a  composite 
ship  ?  (30) 

10.  Name  and  sketch  the  different  parts  of  anchor  gear  required  for  letting-go,  riding, 
and  weighing.     (45) 

11.  Sketch  the  different  kinds  of  side-lights  and  ventilating  scuttles  in  use  in  iron 
ships.     (40) 

12.  Describe  the  several  fittings  which  the  shipbuilder  has  to  make  and  fit  in  con- 
nection with  a  heavy  broadside  gun  at  the  port  and  upon  the  deck.     Give  dimensions 
and  nature  of  materials  for  an  18-ton  gun.     (40) 

13.*  Show  by  a  sketch  a  midship  section,  and  a  portion  of  the  longitudinal  elevation 
of  any  composite  vessel  with  which  you  are  acquainted,  and  state  her  general  diuieu- 
eions.  (40) 

14  Describe  the  fastenings  which  would  be  employed  in  such  a  vessel,  and  show  by 
a  sketch  how  they  would  be  arranged.  (25) 

15.*  In  applying  forge  tests  to  a  piece  of  cold  sheared  iron  or  steel  plate,  may  any 
difference  in  result  be  expected  according  to  which  side  is  uppermost  ?  If  so,  to  what 
cause  do  you  attribute  this  difference  ?  (20) 

16.*  In  attaching  a  forging  to  a  plate  by  means  of  rivets  through  a  flat  palm,  sup- 
posing there  were  two  rows  of  rivets,  one  behind  the  other,  say  two  in  front  and  three 
behind,  by  what  considerations  would  you  decide  how  much  the  palm  might  be  thinned 
down  across  the  hinder  row  of  rivets  ?  (40) . 

17.  State  of  what  materials  and  in  what  manner  a  scupper  from  the  main  deck  of  an 
iron  ship  is  formed  and  fitted.     (30) 

18.  Give  a  sketch  of  a  boat's  davit  for  a  28-feet  cutter  with  figured  dimensions  of  the 
parts.     (30) 

19.  How  are  lightning  conductors  fitted  ?     (40) 

20.*  State  briefly  the  ventilating  arrangements  in  an  iron  steamship  of  war,  includ- 
ing those  for  the  magazines.  (35) 

21.*  Describe  the  arrangements  for  steering  by  steam  and  the  mode  of  passing  from 
steam  to  hand  power.  (35) 

STABILITY  AND   OSCILLATIONS   OF   SHIPS. 

Examiner.— J.  E.  PEKRETT,  Esq.,  F.B.S.N.A. 

CLASS  AI. 

1.  State  the  conditions  that  must  be  fulfilled  in  order  that  a  body  may  float  freely 
in  equilibrium  in  still  water,  point  out  the  different  kinds  of  equilibrium  it  may  pos- 
sess, and  show  how  to  determine  all  the  possible  positions  of  equilibrium  of  a  floating 
body,  which  turns  about  a  longitudinal  axis  fixed  in  direction. 

2.  Define  "  statical  stability."    Obtain  an  expression  for  the  initial  transverse  stat- 
ical stability  of  a  ship,  and  estimate  what  change  will  be  made  in  it  by  the  addition 
of  weights  to  the  ship. 

The  weights  being  small  compared  wTith  the  weight  of  ship,  where  should  they  be 
placed  in  order  that  the  initial  stability  shall  remain  unchanged  ? 

3.  Having  given  the  curve  of  stability  of  a  ship  at  any  one  draft,  explain  how 
the  curve  of  stability  at  any  other  draft  can  be  obtained. 

4.  Describe  Mr.  Barnes's  method  of  graphically  constructing  rnetacentric  diagrams 
for  a  ship  at  different  immersions,  and  prove  that  at  any  draft  of  water  for  which 
the  metacentric  curve  has  a  horizontal  tangent  the  center  of  curvature  of  the  curve 
of  flotation  is  coincident  with  the  metaceuter. 

di 

5.  Obtain  the  equation  r  =    ,„,  where  r  is  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  surface  of 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  283 

flotation,  V  the  volume  of  displacement,  and  i  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  plane  of 
flotation. 

6.  Show  how  to  determine  the  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  ship  by  exper- 
iment when  she  is  afloat  in  still  water. 

What  advantage  is  gained  by  having  an  automatic  time-record  of  the  angles  of  heel  1 

7.  Explain  how  you  would  determine  the  angle  to  which  a  ship  would  heel  if  her 
broadside  guns  were  fired  simultaneously. 

8.  Investigate  a  formula  which  will  determine  the  period  of  unresisted  rolling  of  a 
ship  in  still  water,  having  given  her  curve  of  statical  stability. 

Using  this  formula,  prove  that  when  the  statical  stability  is  directly  as  the  angle  of 
inclination  the  period  of  ship  is  isochronous. 

9.  A  ship  is  moving  with  a  given  speed  V  at  right  angles  to  the  lines  of  troughs 
and  crests  of  a  series  of  uniform  waves  whose  period  relatively  to  the  ship  is  PI,  ob- 
tain an  equation  which  will  determine  P  the  absolute  period  of  the  waves. 

Distinguish  between  the  possible  cases  (1)  ship  meeting  waves,  (2)  ship  overtaking 
waves,  and  (3)  waves  overtaking  ship. 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  effective  wave  slope  ?    Obtain  a  formula  which  determines 
its  position  in  a  wave,  assuming  the  presence  of  the  floating  body  causes  no  distortion 
in  the  wave  strata. 

11.  Explain  the  terms  "Curve  of  Extinction"  and  "Rate  of  Extinction,"  and  show 
that  the  rate  of  extinction  is  usually  expressible  in  the  form 

—  —  =  «9  -f-  &  92. 
dn 

12.  Obtain  the  differential  equation  to  the  rolling  of  an  isochronous  ship  in  still 
water 


/y 
and  prove  that  KI  =  —  and  K.2  =  *£!&. 

7T2  7T2 

a  and  b  being  the  coefficients  in  the  previous  question. 

13.  Obtain  Fronde's  Equation  to  the  unresisted  rolling  of  a  ship  among  waves. 
State  clearly  his  assumptions,  and  show  that  the  angle  of  roll  at  any  instant  is  that 
which  the  wave  slopes  would  have  imposed  on  the  ship  independently  of  her  initial 
inclination  and  velocity,  added  to  that  which  her  initial  conditions  would  have  im- 
posed on  her  in  still  water. 

A  ship  being  initially  stationary  and  upright,  prove  that  the  successive  ranges  of 
rolling  are  given  by  the  formula 

TT   H       1        .     2n  TT 


T!  T 

where  n  has  the  values  1,  2,  3,  &c. 
WhenT  =  Ti  prove  that  the  increment  of  roll  for  each  oscillation  is  equal  ~  9',  Ql  be- 

ing the  maximum  slope  of  waves. 

14.  Obtain  an  expression  for  the  angle  of  "Permanent"  rolling  of  an  isochronous 
ship  amongst  uniform  waves  of  given  maximum  slope  and  period. 

15.  When  a  ship  is  rolling  in  still  water,  prove  that  a  short  period  pendulum  sus- 
pended at  her  center  of  gravity,  will,  instant  by  instant,  indicate  with  very  consider- 
able exactness  her  angle  of  inclination,  and  further  prove  that  when  the  pendulum 
is  suspended  at  some  distance  (I)  directly  above  or  below  the  center  of  gravity,  the 
angles  (0.)  that  it  will  indicate  will  be  approximately  related  to  the  true  angles  of 

inclination  (i?  )  by  the  expression 


_ 

6  ~       L 
o 

where  L  is  the  length  of  the  simple  pendulum  keeping  time  with  the  ship. 


284  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

THEOUY   OF   WAVES  AND   MARINE   PROPULSION. 

Examiner. — J.  K.  PKKRETT,  Esq.,  P.R.S.X.A. 

CLASS  Ai. 

1.  Describe  the  geometry  of  trochoidal  wave  motion,  ami  prove  that  the  normal  of 
the  trochoid  passes  through  the  vertex  of  the  rolling  circle,  and  that  there  is  a  point 
of  inflexion  when,  the  normal  is  a  tangent  to  the  tracing  circle. 

2.  Prove  that  the  surface  of  a  trochoidal  wave  is  in  dynamical  equilibrium. 

3.  Regarding  the  trochoidal  surface  as  an  infinitesimal  layer,  prove  that,  in  order 
that  the  pressure  on  the  lower  side  may  be  uniform,  the  thickness  at  each  point  of  the 
layer  must  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  "normal  drawn  from  that  point  to  the  ver- 
tex of  the  rolling  circle. 

4.  If  a  series  of  particles  be  in  a  vertical  plane  when  the  fluid  is  undisturbed,  prove 
that  in  the  wave  motion  this  series  will  be  again  vertical  at  the  transits  of  crest  and 
trough,  and  at  every  other  period  they  Avill  lie  on  a  curve,  such  that  if  a  tangent  to  it 
be  drawn  at  the  point  where  it  intersects  any  surface  of  equal  pressure,  the  tangent 
will  pass  through  the  lowest  point  of  the  corresponding  rolling  circle. 

5.  Prove  that  the  horizontal  momentum  of  the  particles  moving  forward  in  a  tro- 
choidal wave  is  equal  to  the  horizontal  momentum  of  the  particles  moving  backward, 
each  being  approximately 

=  niRIIV 

where  R  is  the  radius  of  the  rolling  circle,  H  is  the  height  of  wave  from  trough  to  crest, 
and  V  is  the  speed  of  wave. 

6.  The  mechanical  energy  of  a  trochoidal  wave  is  half  actual  and  half  potential. 
Prove  IJiis,  and  obtain  the  total  energy  of  a  wave  which  has  a  period  of  i  seconds,  and 
a  height  from  crest  to  trough  of  1  foot. 

7.  State  the  "Law  of  Comparison"  which  governs  the  relation  between  the  resist- 
ances of  ships  and  their  models. 

For  what  element  of  resistance  is  this  law  exact,  and  what  corrections  are  needed 
in  comparing  the  other  elements  of  resistance  ? 

At  a  speed  of  300  feet  per  minute  in  fresh  water,  a  model  10  feet  in  length,  with  a 
wet  skin  of  24  feet,  has  a  total  resistance  of  2.39  Ibs.,  of  which  2  Ibs.  is  due  to  surface 
friction  resistance,  and  .39  Ibs.  to  wave-making  resistance,  the  eddy-making  resistance 
being  nil.  What  will  be  the  total  resistance,  at  a  corresponding  speed  in  salt  water, 
of  a  ship  25  times  the  size  of  the  model,  having  given  that  the  surface-friction  resist- 
ance per  square  foot  of  the  skin  of  a  ship  at  that  speed  is  equal  1.3  Ibs.  ? 

8.  Explain  why  it  is  that  a  ship  traveling  against  a  stream,  with  a  given  speed 
through  the  water,  experiences  a  greater  resistance  than  if  she  were  traveling  at  that 
speed  in  still  water. 

9.  Explain  the  term  "Plane  Water-Line  in  Two  Dimensions,"  and  obtain  the  gen- 
eral equation  of  the  water-line  curves  generated  by  a  circle. 

Describe  briefly  their  graphic  construction. 

10.  Prove  that  a  perfect  fluid,  flowing  through  a  smooth  pipe  of  any  form  whatever, 
will  not  tend  to  push  the  pipe  endways,  provided  the  two  ends  of  the  pipe  are  in  the 
same  straight  line  and  have  the  same  sectional  area. 

11 .  Prove  that  the  steady  motion  of  a  perfect  liquid  past  a  so'id  free  from  disconti- 
nuity of  curvature  and  perfectly  smooth  must  be  irrotational. 

12.  What  is  meant  by  "Effective  Horse  Power,"  and  what  is  approximately  the 
ratio  between  it  and  the  Indicated  Horse  Power  when  the  engines  are  working  at  full 
power?    Why  is  this  ratio  not  constant  at  all  speeds  f 

13.  If  a  vessel  be  propelled  by  screw  or  paddle,  prove  that  the  forward  momentum 
generated  by  the  passage  of  the  ship  is  exactly  balanced  by  the  backward  momentum 
generated  by  the  action  of  the  propeller. 

Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  "  Fractional  Wake"  of  a  ship,  and  sho'.v  the  relation- 
ship which  exists  between  it  and  the  ship's  surface  friction  resistance. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS— GREENWICH.  285 

14.  Explain  the  nature  of  the  actioivof  a  jet  propeller,  and  prove  that  if  the  friction 
of  engine  anil  Avater  resistance  of  passages  be  neglected,  the  efficiency  of  the  pro- 
peller is 

2V 

""*  + V 
where  v  is  the  velocity  of  discharge  of  water  from  orifices,  and  V  the  speed  of  ship. 

15.  State  the  chief  assumptions  in  the  theory  of  the  screw  propeller,  and  indicate 
the  method  adopted  to  obtain  an  expression  for  the  thrust  of  a  screw  of  uniform  pitch 
working  in  undisturbed  water. 

Prove  that  the  efficiency  of  the  screw  is  equal  to — 

j slip  of  propeller 

speed  of  propeller ' 

MARITIME    INTERNATIONAL   LAW. 
Examiner. — The  Eight  Hon.  MOUMTAGUE  BERNARD,  D.  C.  L. 
Lieutojiants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students. 

1.  A  cruiser  seizes  at  sea,  for  a  cause  which  the  commanding  officer  judges  to  be  suf- 
ficient, a  vessel  of  neutral  or  uncertain  nationality.     What  are  the  captor's  duties  ? 

2.  If  the  vessel  seized  bean  enemy's,  what  is  then  the  duty  of  the  captor?     In  what 
sense  is  it  true  that  adjudication  by  a  prize  court  is  necessary  in  this  case? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  " convenient  port"  for  sending  in  a  prize? 

4.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  rule  that,  when  a  capture  has  been  made  without 
"  probable  cause,"  a  prize  court  will  decree  payment  of  costs  and  damages. 

5.  In  a  war  between  England  and  Russia,  two  British  merchantmen,  A  and  B,  are 
captured  by  Russian  cruisers,  and  carried,  the  one  into  San  Francisco,  the  other  into 
New  Orleans,  the  United  States  being  neutral.     A  is  condemned  by  a  Russian  vice- 
admiralty  court,  sitting  in  San  Francisco;  B  (whilst  still  lying  at  New  Orleans)  by  a 
prize  court  at  St.  Petersburg.     Both  are  sold  to  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  after- 
wards come,  under  the  American  flag,  into  the  port  of  London.     Can  both  or  either  be 
claimed  by  the  original  owner  on  the  ground  that  the  condemnation  was  invalid  ? 
Give  reasons. 

6.  On  what  evidence  are  questions  of  prize  or  no  prize  commonly  determined,  and  what 
reasons  may  be  given  for  the  established  practice  in  this  respect  ? 

7.  On  what  is  the  right  of  a  captor  to  have  the  benefit  of  his  prize  founded,  and 
how  is  it  limited  according  to  the  law  and  practice  of  the  British  navy  ? 

8.  What  is  a  tender  to  a  man-of-war,  and  what  is  legally  necessary  to  constitute  a 
tender  f 

9.  What  are  privateers,  and  how  are  they  distinguished  from  public  ships  of  war  on 
the  one  hand,  and  front  non-commissioned  vessels  on  the  other  ? 

10.  Explain  the  phrase  "  Droits  of  admiralty,"  and  give  examples  of  seizures  which 
fall  within  that  designation. 

11.  A  and  B,  two  Queen's  ships,  are  cruising  in  company.     A  makes  out  a  strange 
sail,  and  gives  chase,  B  joining  in  the  chase.     A,  after  nightfall,  overhauls  the  chase 
and  captures  her.     B  claims  to  share  as  joint  captor.     What  must  B  prove  in  order  to 
substantiate  her  claim? 

GERMAN. 

Examiner. — Dr.  HOST. 
Lieutenants  qualifying  as  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students. 

I.  Write  out  the  present  indicative  of  the  reflexive  verb,  sich  laben. 

II.  Give  the  German  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  of  the  four  seasons,  adding 
to  each  of  the  latter  an  appropriate  adjective. 

III.  Conjugate  the  singular  of  the  present  indicative,  and  give  the  past  paiticiple, 
of  konnen,  mogen,  essen,  uehmen,  fallen,  greifeu. 


286  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

IV.  Translate  into  German  :  I  have  taken  a  walk.     We  found  nothing  to  eat.     The 
moon  shines  brightly.    The  ship  is  in  the  harbor.    The  night  was  very  stormy.    There 
was  a  loud  cry  in  the  street.     I  saw  them  lying  on  the  sand.     They  found  fresh  water 
on  the  island.    We  have  had  a  long  voyage.     The  weather  is  much  finer  to-day. 

V.  Translate :    Wie  lange  sind  Sie  schon  hier  ?    Welche  Sprachen  sprechen  Sie  ? 
Waunsind  Sie  zuletzt  krank  gewesen  ?    Wie  viele  Meilen  konnen  Sie  an  eiuem  Tage 
marschiren  ?     Welche  fremde   Liinder  haben   Sie  besucht  ?    Wo   hat  es  Ihnen   am 
besten  gefallen?    Wo  haben  Sie  Deutsch  zu  lernen  angefangen?    Wie  lange  fiihrt  em 
Dampfschiff  von  hier  nach  Copenhagen  ? 

VI.  Answer,  in  German,  any  five  of  the  above  questions. 

VII.  Express  in  German  words  :  139  degrees,  45  minutes ;  a  quarter  to  7  ;  half  past 
7;  the  lath  of  March ;  sixfold;  -ft-;  the  first  time;  15  times, 

VIII.  Decline  the  relative  pronoun  der,  die,  das. 
Translate :  In  what,  into  what,  for  what,  with  what. 

IX.  Mention  ten  German  prepositions,  with  the  case  or  cases  each  governs. 

X.  Give  the  English  for  der  stille  Ocean,  die  Ostsee,  die  Nordsee,  das  Mittelliiu- 
dische  Meer,  das  siidliche  Eismeer,  der  Wende.kreis  des  Steinbocks,  Gronlaad,  Norwe- 
gen,  Griechenland,  Hinterindieu. 

XI.  Dictation. 

XII.  Translate  into  German  : 

1. 

MALTA,  May  28. 

H.  M.  S.  Black  Prince  proceeds  to  Suda  Bay  on  Thursday,  to  join  the  squadron  of 
Admiral  Lord  John  Hay. 

PORTSMOUTH,  Tuesday. 

The  Sultan,  12,  armor-plated  ship,  Capt.  E.  K.  Howard,  bearing  the  flag  of  Rear- 
Admiral  W.  McDowell,  C.  B.,  and  lately  commanded  by  H.  R.  H.  the  Duke  of  Edin- 
burgh, arrived  at  Spithead  to-day.  The  Warrior,  32,  steamed  out  of  harbor  and 
anchored  at  Spithead  to  take  in  her  powder  and  shell. 

2. 

Of  the  three  rivers  Mekong,  Shweli,  and  Salwen,  the  Sal  wen  is,  in  the  parallel  at 
which  we  crossed,  beyond  question  the  largest.  The  "Topography  of  Yiinnan"  does 
not  give  its  breadth,  but  draws  special  attention  to  its  evil  reputation  for  malaria. 
The  Lu  River,  anciently  called  the  Nu,  is  met  with  twenty  .miles  south  of  Yuug-chang. 
The  mountains  on  both  banks  are  exceedingly  steep,  and  its  exhalations  are  so  poison- 
ous that  it  is  impassible  during  summer  and  autumn. 

XIII.  Translate: 

Die  Papua-Inselu  bilden  noch  ein  unbegrenztes  Arbeitsf'eld  fiir  den  Naturforscher. 
Diese  Inseln  allein  siud  die  Heimath  der  Paradiesvogel,  dieser  Wundererscheimmgen 
der  Vogelwelt,  die  an  Pracht  des  Gefieders  iiichts  iiberlrifft.  Wallace  ist  es,  welcher 
die  ersten  Paradiesvogel  lebend  nach  Europa  brachto,  und  nicht  einmal  in  ihrer 
Heimath  hatte  er  sie  kaufen  konnen,  sonderu  zufallig  in  Singapore  getroften,  aber  mit 
Vergniigen  die  geforderten  hundert  Pfnnd  Sterling  d'afiir  bezahlt.  Vor  ihm  hat  schon 
der  franzosische  Arzt  und  Naturforscher  Lesson,  welcher  auf  seiner  Erdumsegelung 
1824,  kurze  Zeit  auf  den  Papua-Inselu  verweilte,  etwa  ein  Dutzend  Paradiesvogel- 
arten  in  unversehrten  frischen  Biilgen  znsammeugebracht,  die  ersten  zuverliissigen 
Mittheilungen  iiber  das  Freileben  dieser  Vogel  gegeben,  uud  damit  die  alten  Fabeln 
und  Marchen,  welche  iiber  dieselben  verbreitet  waren,  zerslreut. 

Vor  Kurzem  wurde  in  Kiel  die  Taufe  des  jiiugsten  Gliedes  unserer  Flotte,  der 
Panzercorvette  Bavaria  vollzogeu.  Dieses  Schiflf  ist  mit  Bezug  auf  seinen  Panzer  und 
seine  Artillerieausriistung  das  stiirkste  der  Marine.  Die  Lange  der  Bavaria  betriigt 
91  m.,  die  Breite  18  m. ;  die  Panzerhaut  ist  16  Zoll  eug.  stark;  die  Artillerieausriistung 
wircl  aus  sechs  Geschutzen  von  schwersten  Kaliber  bestehen.  Dies  schiff  gehort  zur 
Klasse  der  Thurmschifte  und  ist  ausserdem  noch  mit  einem  miichtigen  Rammsporn 
versehen.  Beim  Schlusse  der  kurzen  Taufrcde  schleuderte  der  Vice-Priisident  die  an 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS GREENWICIf.  287 

schwarz-weiss-nothen  Biindern  pendelnde  Flasche  Champagner  gegen  den  Bug  der 
Corvette;  das  Commando  "Kapp  ab"  ertonte,  einige  Secunden  vernahm  man  das 
Durchhauen  des  Stoppers,  und  langsam  majestatisch  unter  den  Kliingen  der  National- 
hymne,  dem  Jubelrufe  der  Tauseude  von  Zuschauern  glitt  die  Corvette  in  die  blaueii 
\\Jellen  der  Ostsee  hinab. 

XIV.  Reading. 

XV.  Conversation  in  German. 

FRENCH. 

Examiner. — Professor  KAUCIIKR. 
All  students  except  acting  sub-lieutenants, 
I.  Translate  into  English  : 

Le  Chien. 

An  commencement  Dieu  cre"a  1'homme,  et,  le  voyant  si  faible,  il  Ini  donna  le  cliieu. 
II  chargea  le  chien  de  voir,  d'entendre,  de  sentir,  et  de  courir  pour  1'homme.  Et  le 
chien,  qui  est  le  plus  docile  et  par  consequent  le  plus  intelligent  des  anirnaux,  u'eut 
garde  de  de"sob6ir  a  la  voloutd  de  Dieu.  II  se  fit  le  serviteur  devoue",  1'agent  de  police 
de  1'homme. 

Le  chien  est,  dans  toute  societe"  fondle  sur  la  proprieteindividuelle,  comme  la  notre, 
le  gardien  vigilant,  et  le  de"feuseur  heroique  de  ce  qui  s'appellel'ordre  public  et  lapro- 
prie'te'.  Les  betes  sont  ce  que  les  hommes  les  font.  Les  chiens  de  la  tribu  Arabe,  or- 
ganists pour  la  defense  de  la  commune,  cousiderent  comme  ddgradant  le  service  d'un 
homme  seul,  et  ils  ont  bien  raison.  Cependaut,  le  chieu  n'entre  pas  dans  la  discussion 
de  la  question  de  droit ;  sou  devoir  est  d'obeir  et  de  se  taire :  il  obe"it  sans  murmurer. 
Le  chien  est  la  plus  belle  conquete  que  1'homme  ait  jamais  faite,  car  cette  conquete  a 
donne"  a  1'homme,  dit  M.  de  Buffon,  des  sens  qui  lui  manquaient.  Le  chien  est  le  pre- 
mier dle'ment  du  progres  de  I'humanite". 

"  Sans  le  chien  point  de  societ^s  humaines"  dcrit  le  livre  sacre"  des  auciens  Parsis. 
Sans  le  chien,  en  effet,  pas  de  troupeau.  Sans  le  troupeau,  pas  de  subsistance  assure"e, 
pas  de  viande  a  volont6,  pas  de  laine,  pas  de  temps  a  perdre,  pas  d'observations  astro- 
nomiques,  pas  de  science,  pas  d'industrie.  C'est  le  chien  qui  a  fait  a  1'homme  tous  ses 
loisirs.  L'Orieut  est  le  berceau  de  la  civilisation,  parce  que  1'Orient  est  le  patrie  du 
chien. 

Les  indigenes  de  1'Asie,  qui  avaient  le  chien,  ont  e"te~  dispenses  de  se  livrer  aux  pe"ni- 
bles  travaux  qui  absorbaient  tout  le  temps  et  toutes  les  faculty's  des  Peaux-Rouges  In 
diens  d'Ame'rique.     Ils  out  eu  du  temps  de  reste,  et  ils  ont  pn  1'employer  a  cr6er  1'in- 
dustrie. — ALPIIOXSE  TOUSSENEL. 
II. — Grammatical  questions  based  on  the  foregoing  passage. 

(N.  B. — Choose  between  the  two  sets  of  questions  A  and  B,  and  answer  only  the  ques 
tions  contained  iu  the  set  you  select.) 

A. 

1.  Write  the  feminine  form  of  the  nouns  le  cliien,  le  serviteur,  le  gardien,  and  of  the 
adjectives  ^w&h'c,  premier,  docile;  the  two  masculine  forms  of  the  adjective  belle;  the 
plural  of  le  troupeau  and  le  berceau  ;  the  singular  of  les  animaux,  and  the  two  plural 
forms  of  le  travail,  explaining  the  difference  in  the  use  of  both. 

2.  Write  the  first  person  singular  of  the  conditional  present  and  the  subjunctive 
present  of  the  verbs  voir,  entendre,  sentir,  faire,  courir,  employer.     When  is  the  y  replaced 
by  an  i  in  all  verbs  ending  in  oyer  ? 

3.  Conjugate  in  full  the  affirmative  imperative  of  the  reflective  verb  se  taire,  and  the 
negative  imperative  of  se  livrer. 

4.  La  notre.     When  is  notre  written  thus,  without  a  circumflex  accent  over  the  of 
Give  the  plural  forms  of  notre,  le  notre,  and  translate  as  instances:  "our  house  and 
yours;  our  houses  and  yours." 


288  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

5.  Intelligent,  consequent,  vigilant,  public,  seul,  premier,  humain. 

Give  the  adverbs  iu  ment  formed  from  these  adjectives,  and  state  the  rules. 

6.  Parce  que.     Explain  the  difference  between  parce  que  and  par  cc  qne,  and  translate 
into  English:  par  ce  queje  vois ;  parce  queje  vois. 

Froyres.     When  do  yon  put  a  grave  accent  over  the  e  in  the  final  syllable  es  ?         . 

B. 

1.  La  plus  "belle  conquete  que  1'homme  ait  jamais' faite.     Why  is  the  subjunctive  mood 
required  in  this  sentence  ?    Why  is  the  participle  past  faite  in  the  feminine  ?    Why  is 
jamais  used  without  ne  f    Explain  the  difference  bet  ween  jamais  and  ne  jamais. 

2.  Les  peaux-rouges  Indiens.     Why  is  peaux-rouges  masculine  here  ?     What  would  be 
the  meaning  of  des  peaux  rouges  in  the  feminine  ? 

De  reste.     State  the  difference  between  de  reste  and  du  reste. 

3.  Le  defenseur.     Explain  the  difference  in  the  meaning  of  this  noun  and  of  Ic  defend- 
eur,  and  give  the  feminine  form  of  the  latter. 

4.  State  the  difference  between  un  livre  and  une  livre,  la  tribu  and  le  tribut,  and  be- 
tween fonder  aud/ondre;  conjugate  infullthe  indicative  present  of  both  verbs. 

5.  Un  homme  seul.   Explain  the  difference  between  this  expression  and  un  seul  homme. 
Temps.    When  do  you  translate  the  English  word  time  by  temps,  when  by  fois,  when 

by  mesure,  and  when  by  pas  f 

6.  Ils  ont  raison.     Translate  into  English:   Vous  avez  raison.     Vous  avez  une  raison. 
Vous avez  de  la  raison  ;  and  into  French :  "I  have  reason  to  believe.     It  stands  to  rea- 
son.   State  your  reasons." 

III.  Translate  into  French  : 

(N.  B. — It  will  be  sufficient  to  translate  two  of  the  three  following  passages,  A, 
B,  C.) 

A. — The  siege  of  Acre. 

There  was  no  hope  of  carrying  the  place  by  a  "coup  de  main."  The  French,  remote 
as  they  were  from  France  and  Egypt,  could  not  afford  fresh  losses  ;  they  had  already 
twelve  hundred  wounded,  and  the  plague  was  in  the  hospitals.  Accordingly,  on  the 
twentieth  of  May,  the  siege  was  raised.  The  resistance  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  bravery 
of  the  gallant  English  admiral,  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  of  whose  courage  and  character 
Bonaparte  spoke  in  the  highest  terms.  The  French  general  attributed  the  failure  of 
the  attack  to  the  circumstance  that  Sir  Sidney  took  the  French  battering-train,  which 
was  on  board  of  some  small  vessels  in  the  harbor.  Until  this  period,  Bonaparte  had 
never  experienced  any  reverses ;  he  had  continually  inarched  from  triumph  to  triumph, 
and  therefore  he  confidently  expected  the  taking  of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre.  In  the  letters 
which  he  addressed  to  .the  generals  in  Egypt,  he  had  even  fixed  the  twenty-fifth  of 
April  for  the  accomplishment  of  that  event.  He  said  afterwards :  "  The  slightest  cir- 
cumstances produce  the  greatest  results  ;  had  Saint  Jean  d'Acre  fallen,  I  would  have 
changed  the  face  of  the  world ;  the  fate  of  the  East  depended  on  this  small  town." — 
CUNNINGHAM. 

B. — Letter  addressed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  to  the  DuJce  of  Berry,  nephew  of  King  Louis 

XVIII,  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

We  have  had  a  very  sanguinary  battle  near  the  farm  of  Quatre-Bras,  and  the  Prus- 
sians near  Ligny.  1  had  very  few  men  and  no  cavalry  ;  yet  I  repulsed  the  enemy  and 
had  some  success.  The  Prussians  have  suffered  greatly  and  retired  during  the  night ; 
and  I  was  obliged  to  do  the  same  in  the  course  of  yesterday.  The  Prussians  have  been 
joined  by  their  fourth  corps,  containing  about  thirty  thousand  men ;  and  I  have  almost 
all  my  people  with  me.  I  hope,  and  I  have  reason  to  believe,  that  all  will  go  on  well ; 
but  we  must  be  prepared  for  everything.  It  is  on  this  account  that  I  beg  your  Eoyal 
Highness  to  do  what  is  written  in  this  letter.  Let  the  King  start  for  Antwerp  (An- 
vers),  not  on  a  false  alarm,  but  on  receiving  certain  intelligence  that  the  enemy  has 
entered  Brussels  (Bruxelles)  in  spite  of  me. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  289 

C. — Colloquial  sentences. 

I  am  the  son  of  a  rear-admiral,  and  my  youngest  brother  is  already  a  midshipman. — 
I  have  cruised  during  a  whole  year  on  board  an  iron-plated  frigate. — The  mouth  of  a 
canaon  was  visible  in  every  port-hole. — How  many  cartridges  have  you  in  your  car- 
tridge box  ? — The  sailor  stumbled  over  a  cable  and  fell  down  on  the  deck,  breaking  his 
leg. — What  are  you  doing  ? — Our  boat  does  not  contain  more  than  eight  men. — When 
are  you  going  on  leave  ? 

Frederick  the  Great  formed  his  cavalry  two  deep,  and  made  it  charge  at  a  gallop 
with  the  greatest  order ;  out  of  twenty-two  pitched  battles,  this  cavalry  decided  the 
victory  fifteen  times. 

IV.  Oral  examination. 

V.  Writing  from  dictation. 

SPANISH. 

Examiner.— Senor  CARRIAS. 
Lieutenants  qualifying  as  gunnery  and  torpedo  lieutenants.     Voluntary  students. 

1.  In  what  cases  do  the  adjectives  bueno,  malo,  and  postrero,  drop  the  final  o  ? 

2.  Explain  and  exemplify  the  use  of  Don  and  Senor. 

3.  Write  in  the  feminine  un  enemigo  leal ;  los  mejores  adores. 

4.  Translate,  "  I  fear  she  will  see  you."     "  I  do  not  fear  he  will  see  you." 
•    5.  When  is  than  generally  translated  by  que  and  when  by  de  f 

Translate  into  Spanish : 

6.  It  is  curious  to  observe  a  literary  man's  boyhood. 

7.  My  condition  soon  changed,  and  life  became  a  period  of  enchantment. 

8.  Every  word  was  distinctly  heard,  I  believe,  by  every  person  in  the  room. 

9.  In  consequence,  however,  of  some  slight  illness  it  was  advised,  and  secretly  de- 
termined, that  he  should  be  sent  to  school  at  the  sea-side ;  and  one  morning  Mr.  Hayes 
mounted  his  horse,  and  James  his  gray  pony.     Mile  after  mile  was  left  behind,  and 
they  came  at  nightfall  to  an  inn  where  the  boy's  luggage  had  previously  been  for- 
warded.    The  next  day  brought  the  equestrians  to   Dublin,   and   their  destination 
then  turned  out  to  be  Dr.  Miller's  famous  school  at  Blackrock. 

(First  Division  only.) 

10.  If  anything  could  have  consoled  Ellen  for  the  sacrifice  she  had  made,  it  would 
have  been  the  unwonted  look  of  contentment  and  peace  upon  her  father's  face  as  he 
placed  his  best  loved  child  in  the  carriage  which  was  to  bear  her  from  the  home  of 
her  youth,  beside  one  who  was  well  fitted  to  be  her  guide  and  comforter  through  life's 
weary  pilgrimage.     By  a  strong  exertion  of  determination  she  had  gone  through  the 
day's  proceedings,  as  only  her  sex  can  on  occasions  when  such  an  effort  is  necessary, 
and  even  controlled  her  emotions  when  receiving  her  sisters'  tender  congratulations 
and  loving  farewell  kisses,  but  fairly  broke  down  on  parting  with  her  father  and 
mother. 

Translate  into  English : 

11.  Tal  fue  el  lenguage  usado  ante  el  rey  por  Don  Francisco,  despidie"ndose  bien  £ 
su  pesar  de  la  corte,  donde  habia  hecho  en  todo  aquel  reiuado  la  primera  figura. 
Desde  1,603  hallabase  viudo  de  Dona  Catalina,  con  quien  tuvo  dos  varones  y  tres 
hembras.     Hacia  1,610  estuvo  inuy  proximo  &  pasar  d  seguudas  bodas  con  la  Coudesa 
de  Valencia,  sefiora  de  edad  proporcionada  a  la  suya. 

12.  Excelente  efecto  caus6  la  desapasionada  lectura  de  los  seis  toaaos  de  las  Memo- 
rias.     Su  autor  se  atrajo  desde  luego  no  escasas  simpatias  con  el  nobilisimo  porte  de 
guardar    sileucio   profundo,  que,  £  pesar  de  ir  ya  muy  51  viejo,  y  de  serle  necesario 
vindicar  su  honra  zaherida  por  calumnias  infames,  nunca  hubiese  roto  si  le  sobrevi- 
viera  el  primog^nito  de  sus  corouados  valedores. 

S.  Ex.  51 19 


290  NAVAL    EDUCATION  -  APPENDIX. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Examiner.—  Prof.  C.  NIVEX. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students.     Pro- 
bationary lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  Find,  by  Practice,  the  price  of  14  cwt.  2  qrs.  at  '3s.  2d.  per  Ib. 

2.  Reduce  the  fraction  V^W-  to  its  lowest  terms  (explaining  the  process  employed), 
and  the  resulting  fraction  to  a  decimal. 

To  -iV  of  a  crown  add  -fa  of  a  pound  and  -6%  of  $•  of  f  of  a  guinea. 

3.  Divide  .00355  by  .0568,  and  the  quotient  by  .000025. 

What  decimal  can  be  subtracted  123  times  from  .0401  so  as  to  leave  a  remainder  of 
.000125? 

4.  Two  trains  400  and  150  feet  long  are  traveling  at  the  rate  of  30  and  50  miles  an 
hour,  respectively,  in  opposite  directions  ;  how  long  do  they  take  in  passing  each 
other? 

5.  A  watch  is  set  right  at  noon  on  Monday  ;  at  9  o'clock  on  Tuesday  morning  it  is 
found  to  be  3  minutes  slow.    What  is  the  true  time  when,  on  Wednesday  afternoon, 
it  points  to  half  past  four  ? 

6.  Reduce  |  and  -&  to  circulating  decimals. 

Show  why  the  division  need  be  carried  out  only  to  3  places  in  the  first  case,  and  to  8 
places  in  the  second. 

Extract  the  ecpiare.root  of  161.1716,  and  show  that  the  number  of  square  inches  in  a 
square  mile  is  34  .  212  .  10*  .  II2. 

8.  Grape  sugar  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  in  the  proportions  of  12,  14,  14 
times  their  combining  weights,  which  are  respectively  6,  1,  8  grains.     How  much  is 
there  of  each  constituent  in  1  Ib.  of  sugar  ? 

9.  A  bill  of  470Z.  10s.  is  payable  three  mouths  after  date;  what  is  the  discount  on  it 
at  3  1  per  cent.  ? 

10.  The  price  of  three  per  cent,  consols  is  91f  ;  what  sum  must  be  invested  in  order 
to  purchase  enough  stock  to  yield  an  income  of  561.  a  year? 

What  is  the  rate  of  interest  on  the  money  invested  ? 

11.  If  workmen's  wages  constitute  half  the  cost  of  production,  and  the  manu- 
facturer charge  a  profit  of  20  per  cent,  on  his  outlay,  what  will  his  profit  amount  to 
per  cent,  if,  in  order  to  meet  a  rise  of  5  per  cent,  in  the  rate  of  wages,  he  increases  the 
selling  price  5  per  cent.  ? 

12.  ABC  is  a  semicircular  window,  of  which  AB,  the  diameter,  is  7  ft.  7  in.     If  C  be 
a  point  in  the  circumference  2  ft.  11  in.  from  the  end  B,  find  how  much  glass  will  be 
required  to  complete  the  window  after  the  triangular  space  CAB  has  been  filled  in. 

(The  area  of  a  circle  ^^  (radius)2.) 

ALGEBRA. 

Examiner.  —  T.  S.  ALDIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students.     Pro- 
bationary lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  Simplify 

J 


2.  State  and  prove  the  rule  for  finding  the  G.  C.  M.  of  two  algebraical  expressions. 

Ex.  x3—  17z  +  16  and  x3  —  3x*+x  +  1. 

3.  Solve  the  equations  — 

,-.  •>  x  —  a.x 


(2 
"  ' 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS — GREENWICH.  291 

4.  A  number  of  three  digits  equals  11  times  the  sum  of  its  digits.     The  second  digit 
equals  the  sum  of  the  other  two,  and  by  adding  693  to  the  number  we  reverse  the  order 
of  its  digits.     Find  the  number. 

5.  Solve  the  equation — 

,.  ..     x  —  a  .  x  —  ft a2-}- ft2 

k  ';    x  —  l^~x^a afe    ' 

(x2  +  ^  =  8|. 
^$*»_yi=4. 

6.  A  rectangular  field  of  two  acres  has  a  wall  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long  around  it. 
Find  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  field. 

f          1  I 

1  + 

7.  Simplify 


8.  Show  how  to  sum  a  given  geometric  series  to  n  terms. 

What  do  you  mean  by  the  sum  of  such  a  series  to  infinity  ?    Illustrate  your  answer 
by  the  series  1-^  +  £__£..+  etc. 

9.  Prove  the  binomial  theorem  for  a  positive  integer. 

Prove  that  j  1  +  n  +  M^"~1^  +  etc.  to  (n  +  1)  terms  ]  *= 


I  -f  2n  +  —      -f  etc.  to  2n  +  1  terms. 

10.  Define  a  logarithm,  and  show  that  log  (  a  )  =  log  a  —  log  b. 

If  Iogio2  =  .30103,  find  Iog1064,  log)0f>,  and  log,04  V  5. 

11.  Resolve  into  partial  fractions  — 

x2  —  7  .  x2  —  x  +  1  .   2 
x3  -j-  8  '     (x  —  2)3"  '  35' 

12.  Find  the  coefficient  of  x1'2  in  the  expansion  of  — 


__  _ 

x3  —  6x2  —  a2x  -f  a2fc* 

GEOMETRY. 
Exa  miner.—  Prof.  C.  NIVEX. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  torpedo  and  gunnery  officers.     Voluntary  students.     Pro- 
bationary lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  Bisect  a  given  rectilineal  angle. 

Into  how  many  parts  is  it  possible,  by  means  of  Euclid's  constructions,  to  divide  a- 
right  angle  f 

2.  If  from  the  ends  of  the  side  of  a  triangle  there  be  drawn  two  straight  lines  to  a 
point  within  the  triangle,  these  straight  lines  shall  be  less  than  the  other  two  sides  of 
the  triangle. 

A  triangle  and  a  quadrilateral,  having  no  re-entrant  angles,  stand  on  the  same  base 
and  on  the  same  side  of  it,  the  triangle  being  entirely  outside  the  quadrilateral  ;  prove 
that  the  triangle  has  the  greater  perimeter. 

3.  If  a  straight  line  fall  upon  two  parallel  straight  lines,  it  makes  the  alternate  an- 
gles equal  to  each  other.     Prove  this  ;  and  state  clearly  the  axiom  upon  which  your 
proof  is  based,  and  mention  any  other  which  has  been  proposed  instead  of  it. 

4.  Triangles  on  the  same  base  and  between  the  same  parallels  are  equal  to  each  other. 
D,  E,  F  are  the  middle  points  of  the  sides  BC,  CA,  AB  of  a  triangle,  and  AD,  BE, 

CF  meet  in  O  ;  prove  that  the  six  triangles  into  which  the  figure  is  divided  are  equal 
to  each  other. 


292  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

5.  Describe  a  square  which  shall  be  equal  to  a  given  rectilineal  figure. 

6.  Prove  that  the  opposite  angles  of  a  quadrilateral  inscribed  in  a  circle  are  together 
equal  to  two  right  angles. 

A  circle  is  cut  out  of  a  sheet  of  paper  and  a  triangle  inscribed  in  it.  The  segments 
which  lie  outside  the  sides  of  the  triangle  are  doubled  over  those  sides  respectively ; 
prove  that  the  arcs  will  now  meet  in  a  point,  which  point  is  the  intersection  of  the 
perpendiculars  from  the  angles  of  the  triangle  on  the  opposite  sides. 

7.  Describe  a  circle  which  shall  touch  three  given  straight  lines. 

Describe  a  circle  which  shall  pass  through  two  given  points  and  touch  a  given 
straight  line. 

8.  If  two  circles  cut  one  another,  the  straight  line  joining  their  centers  bisects  the 
common  chord  at  right  angles. 

To  what  theorems  of  tangency  does  this  result  give  rise  ? 

9.  A,  B,  C,  D  are  four  given  points ;  it  is  required  to  find  a  point  P  such  that 

(i)  AP2  -+-  BP2  may  be  as  small  as  possible; 
(ii)  AP2  +  BP2  +  CP2  -f  DP2  may  be  as  small  as  .possible. 

10.  If  the  vertical  angle  of  a  triangle  be  bisected  by  a  straight  line  which  also  cuts 
the  base,  the  segments  of  the  base  shall  have  the  same  ratio  which  the  sides  of  the  tri- 
angle have  to  one  another. 

If  the  line  AD  which  bisects  the  angle  A  cut  the  base  in  D,  prove  that  2  AD  is  less 
than  AB  +  AC. 

11.  Find  a  mean  proportional  to  two  given  straight  lines. 

AB  is  the  diameter  of  a  semicircle  and  C  is  any  point  on  the  curve.  BC,  AC  meet 
the  tangents  at  A,  B  in  D,  E;  prove  that  AB  is  a  mean  proportional  between  AD,  BE. 

12.  Similar  triangles  are  to  one  another  in  the  duplicate  ratio  of  their  homologous 
aides. 

TRIGONOMETRY. 
Examiner.—  Prof.  C.  NIVEN. 

JLieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students.     Pro- 
bationary lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  Express  the  cosine  of  an  angle  in  terms  of  the  tangent. 

3  5 

If  tan  A  =  j,  tan  B  =  ys,  find  the  values  of  cos  B,  cos  A  —  B,  cos  4A. 

2.  Find  the  sines  of  60°,  45°,  15°. 
Prove  that  (sec  15°  + cosec  15°)2  =  24. 
.3.  Prove  the  formulae — 

Sin  (A  +  B)  sin  (A  —  B)  =  sin2A  —  sin  2B. 

Sin  3A  =  3  sin  A  —  4  sin  3A. 
Sec  2A  -f  4  sec  22A=  16  cosec  24A—  cosec  2Ai 
4.  Solve  the  equations — 


Tan 


A  =3  tan  A^—  i\ 


Sin  6  -f  sin  28  +  sin  30  =  0. 
Tan  30  —  tan  6  =  tan  40  =  tan  20. 


prove  that  cos  A  tan  a  =  cos  B  tan  b,  and  sin  A  sin  Z>  =  sin  B  sin  a. 
6.  Express  the  cosine  of  half  any  angle  of  a  triangle  in  terms  of  the  sides. 
If  in  a  triangld  a  =  5,  &  =  6,  c  =  7,  prove  that 

8:nA        1     8inB_31/3 

8111    _    -—  — ,  Bill  -—   —     —    • 

2     1/7       a      Vib 


EXAMINATION  PAPERS  -  GREENWICH.          293 

7.  If,  in  a  triangle,  a1,  &2,  c2,  be  in  arithmetical  progression,  prove  that  cos  2A,  cos 
2B,  cos  2C,  are  also  in  arithmetical  progression. 

8.  Investigate  formulae  for  solving  a  triangle  in  which  are  given  two  sides  and  the  - 
included  angle. 

Example  a  =  1|,  Z>  =  3,  C  =  60°. 

9.  Find  an  expression  for  the  radius  of  a  circle  inscribed  in  a  triangle. 

If  a,  j3,  y,  6  be  the  radii  of  the  four  circles  which  touch  the  sides  of  a  triangle;  , 
prove  that  the  area  of  the  triangle  =  Va  /?  y  6. 

10.  An  observer,  the  height  of  whose  eye  is  h,  standing  by  the  bank  of  a  river,  ob- 
serves that  the  altitude  of  a  tree  on  the  opposite  bank  is  a,  and  that  the  depression  of 
the  top  of  its  image  in  the  water  is  /?  ;  find  the  height  of  the  tree  and  the  breadth  of 
the  river. 

11.  State  and  prove  Demoivre's  Theorem  when  the  index  is  a  whole  number.    State 

it  completely  when  the  index  is  a  vulgar  fraction  ™. 
Sum  the  series  — 

.   cos  20  cos  24>    .    cos  30  cos  3*  . 
cos  6  cos  *  +  -  j-g—  —  -\  --  j-g-g  -  +  .     .    .    .  to  QD. 

12.  Expand  sin  Q  in  ascending  powers  of  6. 

If  6  represent  the  number  of  minutes  in  the  angle,  what  does  the  series  become  ? 
Employ  the  equality  — 

sin  (?-  -f  0^-f-  sin  (^  —  8\=  cos  6  to  prove  that 
V6         /  V6         / 


CO-ORDINATE  GEOMETRY. 

Examiner.—  T.  S.  ALDIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students. 

1.  Find  the  co-ordinates  of  a  point  which  divides  the  line  joining  two  given  points  ij*  • 
a  given  ratio. 

Hence  find  the  locus  of  the  middle  point  of  the  line  drawn  from  the  origin  to  any 
point  in  the  straight  line  3x  -f  y  =  7. 

2.  Find  the  equation  to  a  straight  line  in  terms  of  the  intercepts  it  makes  on  the 
axes. 

Points  are  taken  on  the  axis  of  x  at  distances  a  and  —  a  from  the  origin  and  on  the- 
axis  of  y  at  distances  a  and  2  a  from  the  origin.  Find  the  co-ordinates  of  the  points  of 
intersection  of  the  lines  which  join  these  points,  two  and  two. 

3.  Show  how  to  find  the  length  of  the  perpendicular  from  a  given  point  upon  a  given 
straight  line. 

3x  +  4y  =  7  ;  5x  +  12#  =  3  ;  8*  +  15y  =  13 

are  the  equations  to  the  sides  of  a  triangle.     Find  the  radius,  and  the  co-ordinates  of 
the  center  of  the  circle  inscribed  in  it.     Explain  the  ambiguities  of  sign  which  arise. 

4.  Show  how  to  transform  co-ordinates  from  one  pair  of  rectangular  axes  to  another 
with  the  same  origin  and  inclined  to  them  at  a  given  angle.     What  does  the  equation 
a?  —  I/2  =  1  become  when  the  axes  are  turned  through  an  angle  of  45C  ? 

5.  Find  the  equation  to  the  tangent  at  any  point  of  the  curve  r  =  -  -  -  —  z  and' 

1  —  C  COS  0 

the  locus  of  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  upon  it  from  the  origin. 

6.  Prove  that  the  subnormal  in  the  parabola  is  constant. 

7.  Find  the  locus  of  the  middle  points  of  parallel  chords  in  an  ellipse,  and  prove- 
that  the  tangents  at  the  points  where  the  locus  cuts  the  ellipse  are   parallel  to  the- 
chords. 


'294  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

8.  Show  that  the  equation  to  the  normal  at  any  point  of  an  ellipse  can  be  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  tangent  of  the  angle  it  makes  with  the  axis  of  x. 

9.  Find  the  locus  of  a  point,  tangents  from  which  to  a  given  ellipse  are  at  right 


10.  Find  the  locus  of  a  point,  the  product  of  whose  distances  from  two  given  straight 
lines  is  constant. 

11.  Find  the  locus  of  the  middle  points  of  parallel  chords  in  the  curve  represented 
<  by  the  general  equation  of  the  second  degree. 

Find  the  condition  that  all  such  loci  may  be  right  lines,  parallel  to  a  fixed  one,  what- 
•  ever  the  direction  of  the  chords  may  be.  What  will  the  equation  represent  in  this 
-case? 

12.  Find  the  conditions  that  the  general  equation  of  the  second  degree  may  repre- 
^sent  a  circle. 

STATICS. 
Examiner.— T.  S.  ALDIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  torpedo  and  gunnery  lieutenants.     Voluntary  students. 
Probationary  lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  resultant  of  two  forces  ?    Forces  of  5  Ibs.  and  4  Ibs. 
act  at  an  angle  whose  sine  is  f .     Find  the  magnitude  and  direction  of  the  resultant. 

2.  What  is  the  principle  of  the  triangle  of  forces  ?    Prove  its  truth. 

Forces  act  along  the  perpendiculars  drawn  from  the  angular  points  of  a  triangle  ou 
the  opposite  sides,  and  inversely  proportional  to  them.  Show  that  they  are  in  equi- 
librium. 

3.  Show  how  to  calculate  the  ratio  of  the  power  to  the  weight  in  the  inclined  plane. 
What  force  applied  horizontally  will  keep  a  weight  of  5  Ibs.  from  slipping, down  a 

smooth  plane  inclined  at  an  angle  of  30°  ? 

4.  What  is  friction,  and  the  coefficient  of  friction  ?    How  would  you  determine  the 
latter  in  any  given  case  ? 

A  train  will  just  rest  on  an  incline  of  1  in  300.  The  engine  which  just  weighs  the 
•tenth  part  of  the  train  will  rest,  with  its  breaks  on,  on  an  incline  of  1  in  8.  Find  ap- 
proximately the  steepest  incline  ou  which  the  engine  and  train  together  can  rest. 

5.  Show  how  to  find  the  resultant  of  two  unlike  parallel  forces,  acting  in  one  plane. 
Explain  your  result  when  the  forces  are  equal. 

6.  A  girder  100  feet  long  weighs  100  tons,  and  weights  of  30,  50,  70,  and  90  tons  are 
placed  along  it  at  intervals  of  20  feet.     Find  the  pressures  on  the  abutments. 

7.  Show  how  to  find  the  resultant  of  any  number  of  forces  in  one  plane. 

Forces  proportional  to  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  act  along  the  sides  of  a  regular  hexagon  taken 
in  order.  Determine  the  resultant. 

8.  Which  system  of  pulleys  is  most  commonly  used,  and  why  ?    Calculate  the  ratio 
of  the  power  to  the  weight  in  it. 

A  man  with  a  handle  2  ft.  long  winds  a  rope  on  an  axle  a  foot  in  diameter.  The 
rope  passes  through  one  movable  pulley  attached  to  the  object  to  be  moved.  Com- 
pare the  power  with  the  strain  on  the  object. 

9.  Show  how  to  calculate  the  limits  of  the  power  to  the  weight  for  equilibrium  in  a 
rough  screw. 

10.  Two  heavy  stone  slabs,  10  feet  square,  are  placed  on  a  rough  plane  with  their 
upper  edges  resting  against  each  other.     If  the  coefficient  of  friction  be  £,  find  the 
greatest  distance  that  their  lower  edges  can  be  apart  without  slipping. 

11.  Find  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  semicircular  lamina. 

12.  State  Guldinus's  properties. 

Find  the  volume  of  a  ring  of  given  radius  and  section. 


EXAMINATION  PAPERS  —  GREENWICH.          295 

HYDROSTATICS. 
Examiner.  —  Prof.  C.  NIVEN. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students.     Pro- 
bationary lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  Define  the  specific  gravity  of  a  substance,  and  show  how  to  find  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  a  mechanical  mixture  of  a  number  of  known  substances. 

Gold  and  copper,  whose  specific  gravities  are  20,  9,  are  mixed  in  the  proportions  of 
10  :  1,  and  form  an  alloy  whose  specific  gravity  is  19.  Show  that  the  volume  of  the  alloy 
is  less  than  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of  its  components  by  -^  of  that  sum. 

2.  Explain  the  statement  that  water  always  seeks  its  own  level.    Prove  the  state- 
ment. 

3.  Two  liquids,  which  do  not  mix,  are  in  equilibrium  in  a  bent  tube  ;  prove  that 
their  heights  above  the  common  surface  of  separation  are  inversely  as  their  densities. 

A  uniform  tube  in  the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle  is  fitted  with  equal  volumes 
of  three  liquids  which  do  not  mix,  and  whose  densities  are  as  3  :  4  :  5.  It  is  then  held 
with  one  side  vertical,  so  that  the  lightest  liquid  occupies  the  highest  part  of  the  tube, 
and  the  heaviest  the  lowest  part  ;  prove  that  each  side  is  divided  equally  between  the 
two  fluids  which  it  contains. 

4.  Find  the  pressure  at  any  point  of  a  heavy  liquid,  and  the  whole  pressure  on  any 
surface  immersed  in  it. 

A  heavy  cone,  whose  vertical  angle  is  60°  and  height  3  inches,  is  lowered  into  water 
by  means  of  a  string  attached  to  its  vertex.  Find  the  depth  of  its  vertex  when  the 
whole  pressure  on  the  curved  surface  is  six  times  the  weight  of  water  displaced. 

5.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  center  of  pressure. 

A  jar,  standing  on  a  table,  is  filled  with  equal  volumes  of  three  liquids  whose  den- 
sities are  as  |,  £,  1,  the  lightest  being  uppermost,  and  the  heaviest  being  at  the  bottom. 
The  contents  are  now  thoroughly  mixed  ;  find  the  change  of  pressure  on  a  vertical 
plane  bisecting  the  jar,  and  the  change  of  the  center  of  pressure  of  this  plane. 

6.  Determine  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  of  a  floating  body. 

A  block  of  ice,  a  yard  cube,  floats  with  .08  of  its  volume  above  water,  a  piece  of 
granite  being  embedded  in  the  ice.  Find  its  size,  the  specific  gravities  of  ice  and 
granite  being  .918  and  2.65. 

7.  A  uniform  triangular  plate  ABC,  movable  about  a  fixed  hinge  at  the  angle  A,  which 
is  a  right  angle,  rests  in  a  liquid  whose  surface  passes  through  B  and  bisects  AC.    Show 
that,  if  p  be  the  ratio  of  the  density  of  the  liquid  to  that  of  the  solid, 


.-. 

4—  p 

8.  Explain  how  Nicholson's  hydrometer  is  used  to  find  the  sp.  gr.  of  a  powder  not 
soluble  in  water. 

9.  Describe  the  experiment  by  which  it  is  shown  that  the  elastic  force  of  a  gas  at  a 
given  temperature  varies  as  its  density. 

Abo  state  fully  the  law  of  expension  of  a  gas  due  to  an  increase  of  temperature, 
and  deduce  the  relation  between  the  elastic  force,  density,  and  temperature  of  a  gas. 

10.  OACD  is  a  uniform  tube,  bent  up  vertically  and  closed  at  0.     A  certain  quantity 
of  mercury  being  poured  in,  the  quantity  of  air  in  OA  (  =  a)  is  made  such^that  the 
mercury  has  the  same  level  in  both  branches.    An  additional  quantityjof  mercury  is 
now  added  which  will  be  sufficient  to  fill  &  of  the  tube.     Find  the  final  density  of  the 
internal  air  compared  with  that  outside,  the  height  of  the  barometer  being  h. 

11.  Describe  and  explain  the  air  pump,  and  find  an  expression  for  the  density  of  the 
air  in  the  receiver  after  n  strokes. 

How  is  ice  formed  by  means  of  the'  air  pump  I 


296  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

KINEMATICS  AND   KINETICS. 

Examiner.— T.  S.  ALUIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 

Lieutenants  qualifying  for  gunnery  and  torpedo  officers.     Voluntary  students.     Pro- 
bationary lieutenants  of  Royal  Marine  Artillery. 

1.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  resolution  of  velocities  f    A  man  in  a  ship  walks  round 
the  capstan  in  a  circle  of  12  feet  radius  once  in  a  minute,  in  which  time  the  ship 
moves  forward  a  foot.     Calculate  the  man's  absolute  velocity  when  in  the  line  of  the 
ship's  motion. 

2.  Show  how  to  calculate  the  space  described  in  a  given  time  under  a  uniform  ac- 
celeration, the  particle  starting  from  rest. 

I  drop  a  stone  down  a  well,  and  after  three  and  a  half  seconds  hear  it  splash.  Find 
approximately  the  depth  of  the  water  from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

3.  Show  how  to  find  the  range  of  a  particle  projected  with  a  given  velocity  at  a 
given  angle  to  a  horizontal  plane.     What  angle  of  projection  gives  the  greatest  range  ? 

4.  Show  that  when  a  body  moves  under  the  action  of  a  central  force  the  areas  swept 
out  are  proportional  to  the  time. 

5.  Calculate  the  motion  of  a  particle  sliding  down  a  cycloidal  arc. 
Hence  deduce  the  time  of  oscillation  of  a  simple  pendulum. 

6.  How  is  the  value  of  g  found  from  observations  with  a  pendulum  ? 

A  pendulum  that  swings  in  a  second  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  loses  12  seconds  a  day 
on  the  top  of  a  hill.  Calculate  the  height  of  the  hill,  neglecting  its  attraction. 

7.  State  the  three  laws  of  motion.     Explain  the  relation  between  force  and  acceler- 
ation. 

Equal  weights  are  suspended  to  a  wheel  and  circle  whose  diameters  are  as  1  to  2. 
They  start  from  rest.  Find  the  velocity  acquired  in  three  seconds,  neglecting  the 
mass  of  the  wheel  and  axle. 

8.  Describe  Atwood's  machine.     How  do  you  directly  obtain  from  it  the  acceleration 
produced  in  a  given  mass  by  a  given  weight  ?    What  effect  has  the  pulley  on  your 
result  ? 

9.  A  ball  is  projected  with  a  velocity  of  20  feet  per  second  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  a 
horizontal  plane.     The  coefficient  of  elasticity  is  |.     Determine  the  subsequent  motion. 

10.  Show  how  to  find  the  time  of  describing  any  arc  of  a  parabola  from  the  vertex, 
the  focus  being  the  center  of  force. 

11.  Show  how  to  find  the  force  to  the  center  when  a  particle  describes  a  circle  with 
a  given  velocity. 

How  could  Newton  prove  that  gravity,  as  shown  at  the  earth's  surface,  diminished 
according  to  the  square  of  the  distance  retains  the  moon  in  her  orbit  ? 

12.  If  the  earth  be  taken  as  spherical,  compare  the  time  of  oscillation  of  a  pendulum 
(1)  at  the  pole  (2),  at  the  equator  (3),  in  latitude  60°. 

DIFFERENTIAL  AND  INTEGRAL  CALCULUS. 

Examiner.— Prof.  C.  NIVEN. 
Lieutenants  qualifying  for  torpedo  and  gunnery  officers. 

1.  Define  a  differential  coefficient,  and  illustrate  it  geometrically. 

Investigate,  directly  from  the  definition,  the  differential  coefficient  either  of  e*  or  of 
logeXJ  given  one  of  these  differential  coefficients,  deduce  the  other. 

2.  Find  the  differential  coefficients  of— 


,    log  -==-,  tan 
(2x  — I)2        8  •  s> 


3.  State  and  prove  Leibnitz's  Theorem. 

Apply  it  to  find  the  ntb  differential  coefficient 'of  (x*  —  1)  sin  x. 


EXAMINANION  PAPERS  —  GREENWICH.          297 

4.  State  and  prove.Taylor's  Theorem. 

Prove  that  log  tan  (  j  -f  x  J  =  2x  +  y  x3  +  3  x5  +    ... 

5.  Explain  how  to  find  the  value  of  a  function  which,  for  a  particular  value  of  the 
variable,  assumes  the^form  ^  ;  and  illustrate  geometrically  the  result  obtained. 


Find  the  value  of  e"  +  e~"  —  g  when  x  =  O. 

1  —  COS  X 

6.  Explain  how  the  maxima  and  minima  values  of  <j>  (x)  are  found. 

Of  all  cones  which  circumscribe  a  given  sphere  find  that  whose  curved  surface  is 
the  least. 

7.  Given  x  =  r  cos  6,  y  =  r  sin  6,  where  r  and  6  are  functions  of  t,  prove  that  — 

&x       ePy         JT-r       ,,^2 

xw+yw  =  rdv-r*(ai)  . 

8.  Prove  that  the  sine  of  the  angle  between  the  tangent  to  a  curve  and  the  radius 

*g-» 

vector  to  the  point  of  contact  is  —  —  ;    and  transform  this  expression    to 


polar  co-ordinates. 

Prove  that  tangents  to  the  curve  r  =  a  (1  +  cos  6),  at  the  extremities  of  a  focal 
chord,  are  at  right  angles. 

9.  Define  an  asymptote,  and  explain  a  general  method  for  finding  all  the  asymptotes 
of  a  curve. 

Find  the  asymptotes  ofithe'curve  xy  (y  —  2x)  =  a  (y2  —  x2),  and  find  the  nature  of 
the  curve  near  the  origin. 

10.  Trace  the  curve  y  —  tan  x. 

11.  Investigate  the  rule  for  integration  by  parts. 

Integrate  the^following  functions  :  ,4 


log*)2, 


y*~+~x>  1  +  cosx' 

/V 

and  find  the  value  of    I  3  sin6  x  dx. 

J  o 

12.  Find  by  integration  the  volume  generated  by  the  revolution  of  a  sector  which 
is  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle  round  one  of  its  bounding  radii. 

PURE  MATHEMATICS:  FIRST  PAPER. 

Examiner.— T.  S.  ALDIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  first  year. 

1.  Show  how  to  inscribe  three  equal  circles  in  a  given  circle  so  that  they  may  touch 
it  and  each  other. 

2.  Parallelograms  of  the  same  altitude  are  to  one  another  as  their  bases. 

Why  is  it  not  sufficient,  in  the  demonstration  of  this  proposition,  to  prove  that  if 
the  multiple  of  the  first  be  equal  to  that  of  the  second  the  multiple  of  the  third  will 
be  equal  to  that  of  the  fourth  ? 

3.  Solve  the  equations — 

(1>)     x—\.      x+I  —  12 

'*A-yl-*=l 
a*  ^  ft3      0s 


298  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

4.  Find  the  wth  term  of,  and  sum  the  series — 

(1.)  12  — 8-1/J  +  16  etc. 

(2.)  1  +  4  +  12  +  32  +80  etc. 

5.  If  of  80  persons  born  together  one  dies  every  year  till  all  are  dead,  what  is  the 
chance  of  a  person  aged  36  reaching  the  age  of  63  years  ? 

How  could  you  calculate  the  chance  of  a  boy  who  is  15  years  old  surviving  his  father 
who  is  aged  40  ? 

6.  Show  how  to  extract  the  square  root  of  an  expression  of  the  form  a  -[-  -j/^. 

Find  the  fourth  root  of  •  — +  3  V2. 

7.  Give  the  rth  term  of  the  expansion  of  (1  — 2x) —    in  its  simplest  form;  also  sum 

the  series  1 5  1  .2  —  2.3z  -f  3  .4z*  —  4  .Sx3  -f-  etc.  \  to  infinity. 
(  ) 

8.  Prove  by  means  of  a  figure  that 

sin  ( A  +  B)  =  sin  A  cos  B  +  cos  A  sin  B, 

when  A  and  B  are  each  greater  than  45°  and  less  than  90°. 

9.  The  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun  being  31',  after  looking  at  it  for  an  instant,  I 
glance  at  a  house  a  mile  away  and  see  that  the  impression  of  the  sun  on  the  retina 
just  extends  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  house.     Find  approximately  its  height. 

10.  The  sides  of  a  triangle  are  300  and  400  feet,  and  the  included  angle  is  65°.     Find 
the  remaining  angles.     Given  L  cot  32°  30'  =  10.19581,  log  7  =  .84510,  L  tan  12°  38' 
=  9.35051,  and  L  tan  12°  39'  =  9.35111. 

11.  Find  the  equation  to  the  straight  line  which  bisects  the  angle  between  two 
given  straight  lines. 

How  can  the  ambiguous  sign  be  determined  ? 

12.  Find  the  equations  to  the  tangents  to  the  circle  ar2  -f  y2  =  c2,  which  pass  through 
the  point  4c,  3c,  and  the  equation  to  the  chord  of  contact. 

13.  Find  the  polar  equation  to  a  conic  section,  the  focus  being  the  pole,  and  the 
equation  to  the  tangent  to  it  at  any  point. 

Find  the  locus  of  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  from  the  focus  on  the  tangent. 

14.  Prove  that  the  locus  of  a  point  the  sum  of  whose  distances  from  two  given  points 
is  constant  is  such  that  the  distance  of  any  point  in  it  from'  a  fixed  straight  line  bears 
a  constant  ratio  to  its  distance  from  one  of  the  given  points. 

PURE   MATHEMATICS  :   SECOND  PAPER. 

Examiner.—  Prof.  C.  NIVEX. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  first  year. 

1.  Find  the  equation  of  a  tangent  to  a  parabola,  and  prove  that  it  may  be  put  into 

the  form  y  =  mx  -4-  ~. 
m 

Find  the  locus  of  the  intersection  of  tangents  which  inclose  a  constant  angle  a. 

2.  Determine  the  equations  of  the  lines  which  join  the  extremities  of  the  major  axis 
of  an  ellipse  to  the  extremities  of  one  of  the  latera  recta,  and  find  the  poles  of  these 
lines. 

3.  Prove  that  the  portion  of  the  tangent  to  a  hyperbola  between  the  asymptolea  ia 
bisected  at  the  point  of  contact. 

Find  the  tangents  to  the  ordinary  and  conjugate  hyperbolas  which  pass  respectively 
through  the  foci  of  the  conjugate  and  ordinary  hyperbolas,  and  show  that,  if  these 
tangents  be  at  right  angles,  the  hyperbolas  are  rectangular. 

4.  Find  the  center,  asymptotes,  and  eccentricity  of  the  conic 

(x  —  2y  +  l)(x  +  y  —  2)  =  3x  —  8y. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  299 

5.  Investigate,  directly  from  the  definition,  the  differential  co-efficient  of  x". 


Differentiate 


V^a'   eUn"1'  10g  (^^T-  -)' 


Prove  that,  if  (a  -f  cos  9  •/  a2  —  1)  (a  +  cos  <]>  -/a2  —  1)  =  1,  then 


<P       a  +  cos  0  ifl2  —  1 

6.   If  the  fraction  ^  ^x'.  take  the  form   §5     when  x  =  a,  show  how  to  find  its  true 

(j>(x) 

value. 

*»('-£) 

Find  the  value  of  -     —  —  -  •  when  x  =  a, 


and  of  — -  — when  x  =  O. 

xx2      2x  tan  x 


7.  Find  the  maxima  and  minima  values  of  x*\/a?  —  x2. 

If  lines  be  drawn  through  a  point  between  two  given  straight  lines,  find  that  which 
cuts  off  the  least  area. 

8.  If  x  and  y  are  connected  by  the  relation  0  (x,  y)  =  O,  show  how  to  find  ^   j=3r 

9.  Determine  the  perpendicular  from  the  origin  on  the  tangent  to  a  given  curve  at 
any  point. 


The  perpendicular  on  the  tangent  to  the  curve  (x2-f  y*)2=2a2x»/  is  J^_d~^  ./'  • 

a2 

10.  Find  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  ellipse  4x2  +  llf/2  =  48  at  the  point  (1,2). 

11.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  the  envelope  of  a  system  of  curves,  and  show  how  to 
find  it. 

Circles  are  drawn  having  their  centers  on  the  arc  of  a  parabola  and  touching  the 
tangent  at  the  vertex  ;  prove  that  the  envelope  of  these  circles  is  the  given  tangent 
and  a  certain  circle. 

x  1 

12.  Integrate  the  expressions    .  —  o>     .  —  ==j   ex  cos2x, 

v    1  —  X  —  X*       V   a    ~\~  X" 

a 


and  evaluate 


/ 


0 

13.  Find  an  expression  for  the  volume  generated  by  the  revolution  of  a  plane  curve 
round  a  line  in  its  own  plane. 

Find  the  area  between  the  curve  y'  ~x  -\-  V  w  —  V~a  an<i  the  co-ordinate  axes,  and  the 
volume  generated  by  the  revolution  of  this  area  about  either.  Find  also  the  length 
of  the  curve  between  the  axes. 

PURE   MATHEMATICS. 

Examiner.— Prof.  C.  NIVEN. 

Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  second  and  third  years. 

1.  Draw  the  common  tangents  to  two  given  circles. 

If  a  quadrilateral  circumscribe  a  circle,  the  sum  of  the  angles  which  either  pair  of 
opposite  sides  subtend  at  the  center  is  the  same. 

2.  Find  an  expression  for  the  radius  of  a  circle  inscribed  in  a  triangle. 

If  r  be  the  radius  of  the  inscribed  circle,  and  r1;  r2,  r3  the  radii  of  the  escribed 
circles,  prove  that 

=  &c. 


300  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

3.  Find  the  equation  of  the  tangent  to  an  ellipse  at  any  point  in  the  form  y  =  mx  -}- 
\/m2a2  +  &2.' 

Show  that  the  locus  of  the  intersection  of  tangents,  to  the  ellipse  —  +^  =  1,  which 

inclose  a  constant  angle  a,  is 

(x  2-f  i/2  —  a2  —  ¥)•  =  4  cot2  a  (&2x2  +  ay  —  a2&2). 

4.  For  all  rectangular  transformations  of  co-ordinates  in  the  equation  Ax2  +  2Fxy  + 
Bi/2  +  2Ex  -f-  2Di/  -j-  C  =  0,  the  following  functions  of  the  coefficients  remain  unchanged, 
viz :  A  +  B,  AB  —  F2. 

Prove  this,  and  investigate  what  is  known  ahout  the  curve  when  one  of  these 
expressions  varies. 
Find  the  locus  of  P  such  that,  A  and  B  being  fixed  points,  PAB  ~  PBA  =  a. 

5.  Show  how  to  reduce  the  integral : 


Find  the  following  integrals: 


fa     

J   (x+iy"(*  +  V**"l     ^7~ldX- 


6.  Investigate  an  expression  for  the  volume  of  a  surface  whose  equation  is  given  in 
polar  co-ordinates. 

By  this,  or  any  other  method,  find  the  volume  cut  off  from  the  solid  bounded  by  the 

surface  of  revolution  r  —  a  (1  -(-  cos  B),  by  the  sphere  r  =  ~ 

7.  Show  how  to  differentiate  an  integral  with  regard  to  a  constant  contained  in  the 
subject  of  integration. 

7T 

2 


,   I  cos  26  dd 

By  this  means  find  the  integral  J  fo  COB,  p  +  &,  aip,  e)a. 

o 
8.  Solve  the  following  differential  equations : 


(x  +  1  -  2y)dy  =  (2x  +  y  +  l)dx. 


9.  The  equation  (x2  +  2ax  —  2y\Sa?  +  2ax)dy  +  y(x  +  a)dx  =  0  has  an  integrating 
factor  of  the  form  <f>  (x)  ;  find  it,  and  solve  the  equation. 

d?v 
Solve  the  equation  -+a3y  =  sin  ax,  by  the  method  of  the  "Variation  of  Parameters." 


Solve  also  the  equation  -5-5  +  a3^  =  x  +  sin  ax. 

11.  Find  the  relation  between  a  and  &,  that  the  ellipse  ax2  +  by*  =  I  may  envelop 
the  parabola  y2  =  4cx. 

12.  Investigate  the  theory  of  the  number  of  constants  in  the  solution  of  a  system  of 
ordinary  simultaneous  equations. 

<Z2x          dt) 
Solve  the  equations  :  -p  —  2o^'7  +  c2x  —  cos  nt 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS GREENWICH.  301 

APPLIED  MATHEMATICS:  FIRST  PAPER. 

Examiner.  —  Prof.  C.  NIVEX. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  first  year. 

1.  State  the  parallelogram  of  forces,  and  deduce  from  it  that,  if  three  forces  acting 
on  a  particle  be  in  equilibrium,  each  is  proportional  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  between 
the  other  two. 

A  small  ring  of  given  weight  rests  on  the  arc  of  a  smooth  circular  hoop  which  is 
fixed  in  a  vertical  plane,  being  attached  to  the  highest  point  by  a  string  whose  length 
is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  hoop ;  find  the  tension  of  the  string  and  the  pressure  on 
the  hoop. 

2.  Investigate  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  of  a  particle  acted  on  by  any  number 
of  forces  in  one  plane. 

Three  equal  spheres  rest  in  one  vertical  plane  against  each  other,  being  suspended 
from  a  point  by  strings  each  equal  to  the  radius  of  one  of  the  spheres  and  attached 
to  points  in  their  surfaces.  Find  the  tensions  of  the  strings  and  the  pressures  be- 
tween the  spheres. 

3.  Define  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  body,  and  prove  that  the  center  of  gravity  of  a 
uniform  triangular  plate  coincides  with  that  of  three  equal  particles  placed  at  its 
angles. 

Two  uniform  rods  of  the  same  substance  and  thickness,  and  of  lengths  5  and  3 
inches,  are  rigidly  connected  at  one  end  A  so  as  to  be  at  right  angles,  and  are  sus- 
pended by  a  string  so  that  the  other  ends  are  in  the  same  horizontal  plane.  Show  that 
the  distance  from  A  of  the  point  on  the  longer  rod  at  which  the  string  is  attached  is 
1 .0225  inch. 

4.  Determine  the  resultant  of  a  number  of  forces  in  one  plane. 
Prove  that  the  equation  of  the  line  of  action  of  the  resultant  is 

x'S( Y)  -  y'2(\)  =  2(zY  -  J/X). 

5.  State  the  principal  laws  of  friction  which  have  been  deduced  from  experiment. 
How  can  the  coefficient  of  friction  be  found? 

6.  Determine  the  center  of  gravity — 

(i)  of  a  sector  of  a  circle, 
(it)  of  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

7.  Describe  the  different  systems  of  pulleys,  and  find  whether  a  weight  of  15  Ibs. 
will  be  able  to  support  2  cwt.  in  a  system  in  which  there  are  four  movable  pulleys, 
the  strings  around  which  are  attached  to  a  fixed  beam,  and  each  of  which  weighs  one 
pound. 

8.  Explain  the  principle  of  the  screw,  and  determine  the  mechanical  advantage 
gained. 

9.  Explain  the  difference,  in  dynamics,  between  a  ton  and  the  weight  of  a  ton. 
What  are  their  numerical  values  on  the  foot-pound-second  system  ?     If  the  weight  of 
a  ton  be  the  unit  of  force,  and  a  minute  and  yard  those  of  time  and  length,  what  will 
be  the  unit  of  mass  ? 

10.  Establish  the  equation  u2  =  V2+2^  for  the  motion  of  a  falling  body,  and  express 
it  in  the  language  of  the  science  of  energy. 

A  ball  of  10  Ibs.  is  dropped  from  a  height  of  289.8  feet,  but,  after  falling  half-way, 
it  explodes  into  two  equal  parts,  one  of  which  is  reduced  by  the  explosion  to  rest. 
Find  the  subsequent  motion  of  each  part,  and  determine  the  kinetic  energy  developed 
by  the  explosion. 

11.  Find  the  range  of  a  projectile  on  a  horizontal  plane  passing  through  the  point 
of  projection. 

A  particle  projected  from  a  point,  A,  in  the  floor  of  a  room  returns  to  A  after  strik- 
ing one  of  the  opposite  walls  and  the  floor  successively.  Prove  that  if  it  strike  the 


3Q2  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

wall  at  right  angles  and  the  floor  once  its  elasticity  —  i,  aud  that  it  strikes  the  floor 
half-way  between  the  foot  of  the  wall  with  half  its  original  velocity  and  exactly  op- 
posite to  its  original  direction. 

12.  Two  balls,  A,  B,  whose  masses  are  as  2  :  1,  aud  which  are  moving  in  opposite 
directions,  collide.  If  the  first  ball  be  brought  to  rest,  and  the  coefficient  of  elasticity 
be  |,  prove  that  their  original  velocities  are  as  7  :  5. 

APPLIED  MATHEMATICS  :    SECOND   PAPER. 

Examiner. — T.  S.  ALDIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  first  year. 

1.  Define  fluid,  vapor,  gas. 

Show  that  the  pressure  at  any  point  in  a  fluid  at  rest  is  the  same  in  every  direction. 

2.  What  do  you  mean  by  specific  gravity  f     How  would  you  compare  the  specific 
gravities  of  (a)  two  coins,  (ft)  two  samples  of  milk  ? 

3.  What  is  the  center  of  pressure  and  the  total  resultant  pressure  ?     Find  them  in 
the  case  of  an  equilateral  triangle  one  of  whose  sides  (12  feet  long)  is  on  the  surface 
and  the  opposite  angular  point  10  feet  beneath  it. 

<L  A  hollow  cylinder,  a  foot  long,  closed  at  the  upper  end,  weighs  as  much  as  half 
the  water  it  will  hold.  It  is  sunk,  with  the  closed  end  uppermost,  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion in  water.  How  high  will  the  water  rise  within  it  when  the  top  is  a  foot  below 
the  surface  ?  At  what  depth  will  it  rest  in  equilibrium  ? 

5.  Explain  how  a  ship  can  tack  against  the  wind.     A  Chinese  junk  will  run  before 
the  wind  faster  than  an  English  ship.     In  what  case,  and  why,  will  the  ship  outsail 
the  junk  ? 

6.  In  passing  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point,  air  expands  .366  of  its  volume. 
A  cubic  foot  of  air  at  60°  F.  (the  barometer  standing  at  29  in.)  weighs  527  grains. 
What  will  be  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  when  the  thermometer  is  at  90°  and  the 
barometer  at  28J  in.  ? 

7.  Determine  the  conditions  of  equilibrium  of  a  floating  body.     Why  is  an  ironclad 
with  a  low  free-board  specially  unfitted  to  carry  sail  f 

8.  In  Atwood's  machine  equal  weights  of  10  ozs.  are  suspended  to  the  string  which 
passes  over  the  pulley  and  a  bar  of  1  OK.  weight  is  placed  across  one.     This,  after  fall- 
ing through  the  space  of  a  foot,  passes  through  a  ring  which  removes  the  1  oz.  weight. 
How  far  will  the  10  oz.  weight  descend  in  the  next  minute  ? 

9.  Show  how  to  calculate  the  space  described  iu  a  given  time  under  the  action  of  a 
uniformly  accelerating  force,  the  motion  being  in  a  straight  line. 

A  stone  thrown  down  a  rough  board  inclined  at  an  angle  of  30°  neither  gains  nor 
loses  velocity  in  its  descent.  What  velocity  will  it  gain  by  falling  down  the  board 
(which  is  20  feet  long)  when  it  is  inclined  at  an  angle  of  60°  ? 

10.  A  particle  revolves  in  an  ellipse  about  a  center  of  force  in  the  focus.     Calculate 
the  law  of  attraction. 

11.  Explain  the  action  of  the  governor  of  a  steam-engine.     Show  how  to  calculate 
the  position  it  will  assume  for  a  given  number  of  revolutions  per  minute,  neglecting 
all  weights  but  those  of  the  balls. 

12.  A  smooth  bead  slides  down  the  arc  of  a  cycloid  ;  determine  the  motion. 

APPLIED   MATHEMATICS. — FIRST  PAPER. 

Examiner. — T.  S.  ALDIS,  Esq.,  M.  A. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  second  and  third  years. 

1.  State  and  prove,  for  direction,  the  principle  of  the  parallelogram  of  forces,  ex- 
plaining clearly  the  assumptions  you  make. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS GREENWICH.  303 

ABCD  is  a  quadrilateral  figure.  Forces  act  along  BA,  BC,  DA,  and  DC  proportional 
to  them,  show  that  their  resultant  is  a  single  force  represented  by  four  times  the 
straight  line  which  joins  the  middle  point  of  BD  to  the  middle  point  of  AC. 

2.  Show  how  to  find  the  resultant  of  any  number  of  forces  acting  on  a  rigid  body. 
A  cube  has  forces  proportional  to  1,2,3,4  acting  along  the  edges  of  one  face  taken 

in  order.     Forces  proportional  to  4, 1, 2,  3  act  along  the  corresponding  edges  of  the  op- 
posite face  in  the  opposite  direction.     Find  the  resultant. 

3.  Show  how  to  find  the  C.  of  G.  of  a  solid  of  revolution,  and  find  it  in  the  case  of  a 
hemisphere. 

4.  State  the  laws  of  friction. 

Show  how  to  calculate  the  total  friction  in  the  case  of  a  rope  stretched  round  a 
rough  cylinder. 

5.  Explain  the  principle  of  the  arch,  and  show  how  you  would  calculate  the  curve 
required  for  a  given  arrangement  of  the  load  upon  it. 

6.  What  are  the  laws  of  motion?     Give  an  experimental  illustration  of  each. 
Investigate  formulte  for  the  motion  of  a  particle  on  an  inclined  plane  under  the  ac- 
tion of  gravity. 

7.  Calculate  the  motion  of  a  body  projected  obliquely  and  acted  on  by  gravity. 

A  building  20  feet  high,  '20  feet  wide,  and  30  feet  long  is  surmounted  by  a  gable  roof 
rising  20  feet  higher.  A  smooth  stone  is  projected  horizontally  with  a  velocity  of  2 
feet  per  second  just  along  one  side  of  the  ridge  from  one  end  of  it.  Find  where  it  will 
strike  the  ground. 

8.  Calculate  the  motion  of  a  particle  acted  on  by  a  central  force  varying  as  the  dis- 
tance. 

A  weight  hangs  from  a  peg  by  an  elastic  string  which  it  stretches  to  double  its  un- 
stretched  length.  If  the  weight  be  slightly  displaced,  find  the  time  of  a  small  vertical 
oscillation. 

9.  A  block  of  wood  thrown  on  ice  with  a  velocity  of  10  feet  per  second  is  brought  to 
rest  after  passing  over  30  yards.     A  bullet  of  equal  weight  with  the  block  is  then  shot 
into  it  with  a  velocity  of  100  feet  per  second.     Determine  the  subsequent  motion. 

10.  A  ball  is  dropped  from  a  height  of  10  feet  on  a  plane  inclined  at  an  angle  of  30° ; 
the  coefficient  of  elasticity  is  ^;  find  the  points  where  the  ball  will  again  strike  the 
plane. 

11.  Two  perfectly  elastic  particles  are  revolving  in  the  same  direction  and  in  the 
same  plane  round  a  center  of  force  varying  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance. 
One  is  moving  in  a  circular  orbit,  the  other  in  a  parabola  whose  latus  rectum  equals 
the  diameter  of  the  circle.     They  collide  as  the  second  particle  is  approaching  the  cen- 
ter of  force.     Determine  the  subsequent  motions. 

APPLIED  MATHEMATICS:  SECOND  PAPER. 

Examiner. — Prof.  C.  NIVEX. 
Students  in  naval  architecture  and  marine  engineering  of  second  and  and  third  years 

1.  Determine  the  general  equations  of  equilibrium  of  a  fluid;  and  show  that,  when 
the  external  forces  are  such  as  arise  from  a  potential,  the  surfaces  of  equal  potential, 
of  equal  density,  and  of  equal  pressure  coincide. 

A  heavy  liquid  is  contained  in  a  vessel  and  is  also  under  the  action  of  two  centers 
of  force  which  are  in  the  same  vertical  line,  and  which  exert  equal  forces  at  equal  dis- 
tances, but  one  of  which  is  repulsive  and  the  other  attractive.  The  law  offeree  be- 
ing directly  as  the  distance,  prove  that  the  free  surface  is  a  horizontal  plane,  and  find 
the  pressure  at  any  point . 

2.  Define  the  whole  pressure  and  resultant  pressure  on  a  surface  immersed  in  a  fluid ; 
and  show  how  to  calculate  them. 

Prove  that  the  total  normal  pressure  on  a  spherical  surface  immersed  to  any  depth 


304  NAVAL   EDUCATION — APPENDIX. 

in  water  is  the  same  as  that  on  the  circumscribed  cylinder  immersed  to  the  same 
depth. 

3.  Find  the  center  of  pressure  of  a  circle  immersed  in  water  to  any  depth. 

4.  Find  the  form  of  the  free  surface  of  a  fluid  which  rotates  uniformly,  in  relative 
equilibrium,  round  a  vertical  axis. 

A  cylindrical  jar  whose  weight  is  -th  of  the  weight  of  water  which  it  would  con- 
tain, is  filled  (1 — -  )th  full  and  is  then  placed,  mouth  downwards,  on  a  horizontal 
table  which  is  made  to  rotate  uniformly  round  a  vertical  axis  coinciding  with  the 
axis  of  the  jar.  Prove  that  the  angular  velocity  necessary  to  cause  the  fluid  to  escape 
is  the  same  as  if  the  jar  weighed  ' -th  of  the  Avater  it  would  hold  and  were  (1 — 1-)th 

n  .  rn 

full ;  and  find  this  angular  velocity. 

5.  Investigate  the  conditions  of  stability,  for  small  displacements,  of  a  body  float- 
ing in  water. 

A  pyramid  on  a  square  base,  Avhose  other  faces  are  equilateral  triangles,  floats  in 
water  with  its  vertex  immersed  and  base  horizontal,  find  the  condition  of  stability. 
How  will  the  stability  be  affected  by  tilting  it  round  different  axes? 

6.  Investigate  the  law  of  density  of  a  vertical  column  of  still  air  of  uniform  temper- 
ature. 

Find  the  law  of  density  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  temperature  diminishes  in  har- 
inonical  progression  as  the  height  increases  in  arithmetical  progression,  the  variation 
of  gravity  in  ascending  being  disregarded. 

»  Vs 

7.  State  the  hypotheses  upon  which  the  equation  of  fluid  motion-    =  C  +  gz —  ;. 

is  founded  ;  and  prove  the  equation. 

8.  Define  the  component  velocities  at  any  point  of  a  fluid  in  motion  ;  and,  m  the 
case  of  motion  in  one  plane,  find  an  expression  for  the  quantity  of  fluid  which  flows, 
in  given  time,  in  through  the  boundary  of  a  circle  of  radius  a  whose  center  is  at  the 
origin. 

9.  Given  a  plane  figure  of  any  form;  find  the  line  round  which  it  has  the  least  moment 
of  inertia. 

The  diagonals  of  a  square  plate  being  drawn,  the  two  opposite  triangles  are  cut 
out ;  find  the  principal  axes  and  moments  of  inertia  of  the  remaining  figure,  and  the 
moments  of  inertia  about  each  of  the  edges  of  the  figure. 

10.  State  D'Alembert's  principle,  and  investigate  any  conclusions  which  can  be 
drawn  from  it  for  the  motion  of  a  rigid  body  under  no  forces. 

11.  State  and  prove  the  principle  of  the  convertibility  of  the  centers  of  suspension 
and  oscillation  of  a  pendulum. 

A  pendulum  is  formed  of  two  uniform  rods  of  equal  lengths,  but  of  different  mate- 
rials and  thicknesses,  connected  at  one  end  so  as  to  be  in  the  same  straight  line.  Their 
masses  are  m,  m',  and  the  axis  of  suspension  passes  through  the  middle  point  of  m  ; 
find  the  time  of  oscillation  of  the  pendulum. 

12.  State  and  prove  the  equation  of  Vis  Viva. 

A  rod  AB  is  capable  of  turning  round  A  in  a  vertical  plane,  the  other  end  being  at- 
tached to  an  elastic  string  BC  which  is  fastened  to  a  fixed  peg  vertically  above  A, 
and  such  that  AC—AB.  The  elasticity  of  the  string  is  such  that  a  weight  equal  to 
that  of  the  rod  would  stretch  it  to  three  times  its  natural  length  AB.  If  the  rod  be 

,  %~ 
started  from  its  position  of  stable  equilibrium  with  an  angular  velocity  = 

find  the  subsequent  motion  until  the  string  becomes  slack. 


PRIVATE    STUDENTS    AT    GREENWICH.  305 


NOTE     H. 

ADMIRALTY  CIRCULAR   IN   REGARD  TO   PRIVATE   STUDENTS   IN   NAVAL 
ARCHITECTURE  AND  MARINE  ENGINEERING. 

A  limited  number  of  students  unconnected  with  the  naval  service  will  be  permitted 
to  receive  instruction  at  the  Royal  Naval  College,  in  the  course  laid  down  for  acting 
second-class  engineers  and  dockyard  apprentices. 

The  full  course  will  be  for  three  sessions,  of  nine  months  each. 

The  fee  (payable  in  advance  before  entry)  is  £30  for  each  session,  or  £75  for  the  full 
course.  Students  who  have  already  paid  one  fee  of  £30  will  be  allowed  to  compound 
for  the  next  two  sessions  by  a  payment  of  £50  at  the  commencement  of  the  second 
session. 

Proportionate  fees  will  be  paid  by  students  attending  special  classes  only. 

Students  not  connected  with  the  naval  service  will  reside  outside  the  precincts  of 
the  college. 

Facilities  for  visiting  the  royal  dockyards  will  be  ottered  to  all  private  students, 
being  British  subjects. 

Applications  for  admission  should  be  addressed  to  the  secretary  of  the  Admiralty, 
Whitehall. 

My  lords  reserve  entire  discretion  in  the  selection  of  the  candidates  to  be  admitted. 

ENTRANCE   EXAMINATIONS. 

Private  students  will  be  examined  before  entrance,  in  accordance  with  the  pro- 
gramme laid  down  in  the  general  regulations  established  for  the  admission  of  students 
to  the  Royal  Naval  College,  as  follows,  viz : 

1.  The  ordinary  rules  of  arithmetic. 

2.  Algebra  up  to  quadratic  equations,  the  three  progressions,  the  binomial  theorem, 
and  the  theory  of  logarithms. 

3.  The  subjects  of  the  first  four  books  of  Euclid's  Elements;  proportion  and  similar 
figures,  or  the  definitions  of  the  fifth  book  and  the  proportions  of  the  sixth  book  of 
Euclid's  Elements. 

4.  The  definitions  and  fundamental  formuhe  of  plane  trigonometry,  including  the 
solution  of  plane  triangles.     De  Moivre's  formula  and  its  principal  applications. 

5.  Elements  of  statics,  dynamics,  and  hydrostatics. 

6.  Co-ordinate  geometry,  np  to  the  equations  of  the  conic  sections. 

7.  Geometrical  drawing. 

AXXL'AL    EXAMINATIONS. 

All  private  students  will  be  examined  at  the  end  of  each  session.  Certificates  of 
proficiency  in  the  various  subjects  they  may  have  studied  will  then  be  awarded. 


NOTE    I. 

(Page-.) 
EXAMINATION  PAPERS,  GUNNERY  SHIP  EXCELLENT. 

SUB-LIEUTENANTS. 

(July,  187G.) 

1. — Explain  fully  how  to  divide  an  arc  into  degrees. 

What  is  the  angle  between  the  axis  of  the  gun  and  the  keel  line,  when  the  pointer 
on  the  slide  coincides  with  the  zero  mark  ? 
S.  Ex.  51 20 


306  NAVAL    EDUCATION,    APPENDIX. 

2. — Show  how  to  calculate  the  correction  which  has  to  bo  applied  to  the  bearing  at 
any  particular  gun  in  order  that  its  fire  may  be  directed  on  the  same  point  as 
the  center  gnn. 

Give  the  form  in  which  these  corrections  are  tabulated. 
Is  this  method  absolutely  correct  for  all  bearings? 
If  not  correct,  express  the  error  in  terms  of  (d)  the  distance  from,  and  (ft)  the 

angle  of  training  of,  the  center  gnn. 
3. — What  adjustments  are  necessary  when  placing  the  director  in  position? 

Explain  fully  how  to  test  their  accuracy. 
4. — What  are  the  essential  points  of  the  Fraser  system  of  gun  construction  ? 

Why  is  steel  preferable  to  wrought,  iron  for  the  inner  barrel  ? 
5. — Draw  a  diagram  of  the  12"  35-ton  M.  L.  K.  gun,  distinguishing  between  the 

coiled,  forged,  and  steel  portions. 
State  generally  how  a  double  coil  is  formed. 

6. — The  deflection  scale  is  marked  to  30',  calculate  the  maximum  speed  for  which  it 
can  be  used  with  the  7"  M.  L.  R.  gun  when  firing  at  an  object  distant  1,000 
yards ;  the  time  of  flight  being  2.2  seconds. 
7. — Define  the  following  terms,  and  give  diagram  explaining: 

Line  of  fire. 
Line  of  sight. 
Trajectory. 

What  forces  act  upon  a  projectile  during  flight  ? 

8. — What  are  the  advantages  of  elongated  over  spherical  projectiles? 
9. — Why  is  it  necessary  to  give  rotation  to  elongated  projectiles  ? 

Upon  what  does  the  velocity  of  rotation  required  by  a  projectile  depend  ? 
10. — Describe  the  manner  in  which  a  charge  of  powder  is  consumed  in  the  bore  of  a  gun. 

How  does  the  size  of  the  grain  affect  the  action  ? 
11. — How  is  the  perforating  power  of  a  projectile  measured? 

12. — Find  the  thickness  of  armor  plate  which  can  be  pe-netrated  by  a  projectile 
whose  weight  is  250  Ibs.  and  diameter  8.92  inches,  when  moving  with  a  velocity 
of  1,200  feet  per  second. 

f. 
Given    R=3.138T 

Where  R  —  energy  in  foot  tons  per  inch  of  shot's  circumference. 
Where  T  =  thickness  of  plate  in  inches. , 

13. — Explain,  with  diagram,  the  general  distribution  ,of  the  armor  in  the  Hercules 
and  Shannon. 

8  UB-MK  UTENANTS. 

(January,  1377.) 

1. — In  what  plane  should  racers  be  laid  ?     Give  full  reasons  for  your  answer. 

Explain  how  to  calculate  the  correction  which  has  to  be  applied  to  the  bearing  at 

each  gun,  except  the  center  one,  when  concentrating  a  broadside. 
Give  the  form  of  the  table. 

2. — The  director  is  exactly  over  the  center  gun  and  the  broadside  is  converged  on  the 
beam  for  a  distance  of  400  yards,  but  when  the  guns  are  fired  the  object  is  dis- 
tant 200  yards.     Will  the  shot  from  the  center  gun  pass  above  or  below  the  point 
aimed  at,  and  at  what  approximate  vertical  distance  ? 
Given  axis  of  telescope  above  axes  of  guns  =  10  feet. 
Elevation  for  200  yards  =  13'. 
Elevation  for  400  yards  =  30'. 
3. — With  reference  to  what  plane  is  a  gun  given  elevation  when  laid  by  scale,  as  in 

broadside  firing.— gun  directing  ? 

Explain,  with  a  figure,  why  the  heel  .scale  is  required  in  addition  to  the  elevating 
scale  when  laying  by  director. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS,    GUNNERY    SHIP    EXCELLENT.          307 

How  would  you  test  the  accuracy  of  the  elevating  scales  ? 

4.  —  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  term  "steel." 

In  what  does  it  essentially  differ  from  wrought  iron  ? 

What  are  its  advantages  and  disadvantages  as  a  gun  material  ? 

5.  —  Explain,  with  a  diagram,  the  principal  parts  of  a  9"  M.  L.  R.  gun  with  two  double 

coils. 
Describe  the  vent  bush  with  which  the  Woolwich  guns  are  vented. 

6.  —  A  gun  is  laid,  with  the  sight  close  down,  for  an  object  distant  120  feet.     How  far 

below  the  point  aimed  at  will  the  shot  strike  ?  . 
Initial  velocity  1,200  feet  per  second. 
Tip  of  center  fire-sight  to  axis  of  gun,  25  inches. 

7.  —  Does  the  axis  of  a  rilled  elongated  projectile  remain  parallel  to  itself  during  flight  ? 

If  it  does  not,  give  some  idea  of  the  motion,  together  with  its  cause. 

8.  —Compare  the  lengths  of  the  dangerous  spaces,  with  battering  and  full  charges, 

when  firing  a  9-inch  M.  L.  R.  gun  at  an  object  of  which  the  height  is  20  feet 
and  the  distance  1,500  yards. 
Given  — 


Where  6  =  Angle  of  descent. 

R  =  Range  =  1,500  yards. 
R'  =  R  +  100. 

<p  =  Elevation  due  to  R  =  2°  17'  for  bat.  charge. 
3     16  for  full  charge. 

0'  =  Elevation  due  to  R'  =  2    28  for  bat.  charge. 
3    30  for  full  charge. 

Explain,  with  a  figure,  the  meaning  of  the  term"  "  dangerous  space." 
9.  —  When  a  charge  of  ponder  is  exploded,  are  the  products  of  combustion  liquid,  solid, 

or  gaseous  f    And  in  what  proportion  by  weight  ? 
By  which  products  is  the  shot  propelled  from  a  gun  ? 

10.  —  How  are  combustion  and  ignition  affected  by  the  size  of  the  grain  and  by  the 

density  and  hardness  of  the  powder? 

11.  —  Compare  the  perforating  powers  of  the  following  guns  at  1,000  yards  : 

Gun.  Total  energy  at  1,000  yards. 

9-in.  M.  L.  R  ..............................  2,648  feet  tons. 

8-in.  M.  L.  R  ..............................  1,837  feet  tons. 

12.  —  Compare  the  resisting  power  of  a  6-inch  plate,  when  fired  at  direct,  with  that  of 

a  9-inch  plate  inclined  at  an  angle  of  60°  with  the  line  of  fire. 

13.  —  Describe  generally  the  armored  side  of  the  Warrior. 

SUB-I.IEUTEXAXTS. 

(April,  1878.) 

1.  —  Explain  fully  how  to  divide  any  arc  into  degrees. 

No.  1  of  the  1st  gun  (5th  gun  being  the  center  gun)  in  firing  an  electric  broadside 
applies  his  correction  the  wrong  way;  where  will  the  shot  from  his  gun  fall?* 

2.  —  Explain  how  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  racers  and  the  director  without  using  a 

spirit-level. 
3.—  What  are  the  principal  points  of  the  English  gun  manufa  jture  ?    Give  a  diagram 

of  the  9-inch  R. 
4.  —  The  deflection  scale  is  marked  to  30'  ;  for  what  speed  can  it  be  used,  distance  of 

object  1,000  yards,  time  of  flight  3"  ? 
•*  Data  for  first  question  :  distance  of  object  300  yanks  on  the  beam  ;  distance  between  each  pivot  20  feet. 


308  NAV^AL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

5. — Define  range,  trajectory,  Hue  of  sight,  line  of  fire,  angle  of  departure  and  descent. 
6. — Compare  the  dangerous  spaces  when  firing  a  9-iu.  M.  L.  R.  gun  at  an  object  15  feet 
high  and  the  distance  2,000  yards. 

Charge.  Elevation. 

Battering 3C  17' 

Full 4°  30' 

The  angle  of  descent  is  about  i  greater  than  the  angle  of  elevation. 
7. — The  initial  velocity  of  the  projectile  of  the  10-in  18-ton  gun  is  1,364  f.  s.  ;  what 

will  be  its  velocity  at  1,500  yards  f 
Weight  of  shot,  400  Ibs. ;  diameter  of  bore,  10  inches. 
8. — Explain  and  describe  the  action  of  the  crusher-gauge. 

Did  it  register  the  best  results  with  pebble  powder  or  R.  L.  G.  and  why  ? 
9. — Compare  the  perforating  powers  of  the  following  projectiles: 

Diameter.  Weight.  Velocity. 

9.92  inches 400  Ibs ,  1,118  f.  s. 

8.92  inches .250  Ibs 1,236  f.  s. 

10. — Explain  with  a  diagram  the  general  distribution  of  the  armor  of  the  Triumph. 

SUB-LIEUTENANTS. 

(June,  1878.) 

1. — In  what  plane  is  the  director  placed  with  reference  to  the  racers  and  to  the  ship  ? 
2. — Calculate  the  vertical  and  horizontal  corrections  for  the  starboard  director.      , 

Distance  above  center  gun 20  feet. 

Distance  abaft  center  gun 80  feet. 

Speed  ofship 10  knots. 

Distance  of  target. '. 800  yards. 

Time  of  flight 1.8" 

Correction  of  rifling 5' 

3. — The  charge  of  the  Bacchante's  guns  has  been  altered  from  14  Ibs.  to  22  Ibs. ;  why 

does  that  alter  the  correction  table  ? 
4. — What  metals  are  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Woolwich  guns?    Why  are  the 

Woolwich  guns  preferred  to  Krupp's  ? 

5. — Give  a  short  account  of  the  manufacture  of  a  10- inch  gun,  giving  a  diagram. 
6. — Define  "angle  of  elevation,"  "line  of  sight,"  trajectory,  and  deviation. 

The  ship  is  heeling  10°  to  port  and  you  are  in  charge  of  the -bow  gun,  firing  at  an 
object  right  ahead,  distant  1,000  yards;  what  error  is  introduced  by  the  heel, 
and  how  would  you  correct  it  1 
7. — Describe  the  armor  and  offensive  powers  of  the  Glatton.     Is  she  different  from  the 

Hecate,  and  in  what  respects  ? 
8. — Explain  the  meanings  of  the  terms  "tenacity,"  "elastic  limit,"  "tensile  strength," 

and  how  are  they  respectively  measured  as  applied  to  metals  ? 
9. — Give  a  description  of  the  process  by  which  cast  iron  is  obtained  from  the  ore. 

How  may  the  cast  iron  so  obtained  be  converted  into  steel  ? 
10.-:— Explain  by  a  diagram  what  is  meant  by  a  theoretically  perfect  gun. 

S  U  B-LIEUTENANTS. 

(July,  1878.) 

1. — Explain  what  marks  are  placed  on  the  racer  and  how  it  is  done. 
2. — How  do  you  practically  testjwhether  the  director  is  in  adjustment  with  the  guns  ? 
3. — Work  out  the  correction  tables  for  a  director  30  feet  above  and  60  feet  to  left  of 
midship  gun. 

Correction  for  rifling 5' 

Speed  ofship 15  knots. 

Distance  of  object 500  yards. 

Time  of  flight 2" 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS,    GUNNERY    SHIP    EXCELLENT.         309 

4. — Define  "line  of  fire,"  "line  of  sight,"  "angle  of  departure,"  "jump,"  and  "tra- 
jectory."   What  forces  act  on  the  projectile  after  it  leaves  the  gun? 
5. — Describe  how  a  double  coil  is  made  and  give  a  diagram  of  the  10-inch  gun. 
6. — What  is  a  vent  like  ? 

7. — Describe  the  armor  and  armament  of  the  Belleisle. 
8. — Define  the  terms  "elastic  limit,"  "malleability,"  "durability,"  and  "tenacity," 

as  applied  to  metals. 
9. — What  are  the  properties  of  "wrought  iron,"  "steel,"  and  "cast  iron"?    Give  a 

definition  of  the  term  "steel." 

Why  is  this  metal  used  for  the  inner  tubes  of  our  heavy  guns  ? 

10. — How  are  the  muzzle  velocities  of  the  projectiles  of  our  service  guns  ascertained? 
The  muzzle  velocity  of  the  9- inch  12-ton  gnu  is  1,420  f.  s. ;  find  the  energy  per 
inch  of  shot  circumference  at  1,000  yards  : 

Diameter  of  shot 8.92  inches. 

Weight  of  shot 250  Ibs. 

Using  Bashforth's  tables. 

GUNNERY   LIEUTENANTS. 

(July,  1876.) 
FIRST  PAPER. 

L — What  is  the  difference  between  a  statical  and  a  dynamical  strain  ? 
Explain  the  terms  "malleability"  and  "weldability." 

Give  a  fall  explanation  of  the  terms  "elasticity"  and  "ductility";  and  by  means 
of  a  diagram  show  that  of  two  metals,  having  equal  "limits  of  fracture,"  that 
which  possesses  the  greater  ductility  will  absorb  the  larger  amount  of  work 
before  rupture. 
2. — Distinguish  between  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  steel. 

Why  is  the  classification  which  has  reference  to  the  proportion  of  carbon   no 

longer  admissible  ? 

State  and  explain  the  general  effect  of  quick  cooling  on  an  iron  casting. 
3. — What  are  the  general  properties  possessed  by  wrought  iron  ? 
How  is  its  structure  affected  by  rolling  into  bars? 
Why  is  it  uusuited  for  the  inner  barrel  ? 

4. — For  what  material  is  the  term  "steel"  now  usually  reserved? 
Give  the  leading  points  in  the  Bessemer  process. 
What  is  the  object  of  cooling  in  oil  * 

State  the  arguments  for  and  against  steel  for  the  exterior  of  guns. 
5. — What  are  the  principal  strains  to  which  a  gun  is  subjected? 

Give  an  investigation  of  the  ratio  in  which  the  tangential  strain  is  transmitted. 
Explain  that  system  of  increasing  the  circumferential  strength  which  is  known 

under  the  name  of  the  system  of  varying  elasticity. 
6, — Draw  diagrams  of  the  latest  pattern  7"  and  10"  M.  L.  R.  guns,  distinguishing 

between  the  welded,  coiled,  and  steel  portions. 
Also  draw  a  diagram  of  and  explain  the  Woolwich  groove. 
What  is  meant  by  the  term  "clearance"? 
7. — Explain,  with  diagram,  the  form  of  chamber: 

1.  In  the  earlier  Woolwich  guns. 

2.  In  the  Fraser  gnus. 
What  is  the  reason  for  the  difference  ? 

What  alteration  in  this  respect  is  now  being  tried  in  the  81-ton  gun? 
Fully  explain  the  object  aimed  at  in  the  experiment,  also  any  possible  disadvan- 
tages which  may  arise. 

8. — Describe  the  different  kinds  of  vent  bushes. 
Of  what  material  are  they  made? 


310  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

How  are  vents  examined  ? 

And  when  would  a  gun  be  condemned  for  re  venting? 

9. — A  10"  M.  L.  R.  gun  was  laid,  with  the  sight  close  down,  for  the  center  of  a  target, 
of  which  the  dimensions  were  7  ft.  6  in.  wide  by  3  ft.  3  in.  deep,  the  distance 
being  120  feet: 

How  far  below  the  target  did  the  shot  pass  ? 

Also  how  should  the  gun  be  laid  in  order  that  the  shot  may  strike  the  center  of 
the  plate  ?  ' 

Initial  velocity  1,200  feet  per  second. 
Tip  of  center  fore-sight  to  axis  of  gun  25  inches. 

10. — What  considerations  determine  the  proof  to  which  a  gun  should  be  subjected? 
How  are  heavy  guns  proved  ? 
What  are  the  objections  against — 

1.  A  very  heavy  charge  and  service  projectile  ? 

2.  A  very  heavy  projectile  and  service  charge? 

11. — Give  a  brief  outline  of  the  phenomenon  of  explosion  of  gunpowder. 

What  is,  according  to  Noble,  the  pressure  when  the  powder  entirely  fills  a  closed 


When  fired  from  heavy  guns,  what  is  the  limit  laid  down  by  the  gunpowder  com- 
mittee ? 

12. — To  which  products  of  combustion  is  the  work  done  on  the  projectile  attributed? 
13. — Give  an  outline  of  the  methods  adopted  by  the  gunpowder  committee  to  deter- 
mine the  action  of  gunpowder  when  fired  from  heavy  guns. 
Why  were  two  descriptions  of  instruments  necessary  ? 

Questions  set  one  month  before  the  examination,  and  on  which  papers  should  now  behanded  in. 

Give  your  opinion  (supporting  it,  if  possible,  by  the  results  of  actual  practice)  on 

the  following  points : 
The  distance  at  which  it  would  be  desirable  to  engage,  and  the  description  of  fire 

which  it  would  be  desirable  to  use,  in  single  actions  between  unarmored  ships. 
Can  you  suggest  any  modifications  in,  or  additions  to,  the  descriptions  of  fire 

already  laid  down  ? 

Or  any  alterations  in  the  mode  of  carrying  out  the  quarterly  practice  ? 
Could  any  experiments  be  usefully  earned  out  to  throw  light  on  the  question  ? 

If  so,  what  ? 

GUNNERY  LIEUTENANTS. 

(July,  1876.) 

SECOND  PAPER. 

1. — Define  the  following  terms : 

Line  of  fire. 
Line  of  sight. 
Trajectory. 
Range. 
2.— To  what  principal  motions  is  an  elongated  projectile  subjected  in  its  passag  e 

through  the  air  ? 

Explain  the  effect  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  on  elongated  projectiles  of  the  serv- 
ice form. 

3. — Explain,  with  a  figure,  the  great  advantage  of  a  flat  trajectory. 
What  other  advantages  necessarily  follow? 
What  points  have  to  be  considered  in  order  to  attain  it  ? 
4. — Investigate  the  following  expression  for  the  angle  of  descent: 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS,    GUNNERY    SHIP    EXCELLENT.          311 

And  calculate  the  length  of  the  "dangerous"  space  or  error  which  can  he  allowed 
in  estimating  the  distance,  when 

R   =  range  =  1,500  yards. 
R'  =  R  -f  100  yards. 

9>    =  angle  of  elevation  due  to  R  =  2°  17' 
ij>'  =  angle  of  elevation  due  to  R'  =  2°  28' 

5. — What  is  the  eft'ect  of  the  following  projectiles  on  the  uuarraored  side  of  a  ship  of 
the  Shannon  class  ? 

.65-inch  Gatling  bullet. 
64-pdr.  common  shell. 
64-pdr.  shrapnell. 
9-inch  case. 

G. — How  are  the  perforating  powers  of  guns  compared  in  this  country  ? 

In  what  ratio  do  the  resisting  powers  of  armor  plates  vary  when  fired  at  direct? 
7. — What  properties  are  most  desirable  in  the  iron  for  armor  plates? 
What  is  the  use  of  an  iron  skin  ? 
Explain  the  peculiarity  of  the  Palliser  armor  bolt. 
8. — Explain,  with  diagrams,  the  general  distribution  of  the  armor  in  the  Dreadnought, 

Inflexible,  and  Nelson. 

9. — In  what  plane  is  it  necessary  to  lay  the  deck  on  which  a  turret  revolves  f 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

Explain  the  method  of  marking  a  turret  in  degrees. 
10. — Show  how  to  calculate  a  correction  table  for  concentrating  slide  guns. 

Investigate,  in  terms  of  (d)  and  (6),  an  expression  for  the  error  arising  from  using 
the  table  when  trained  before  or  abaft  the  beam  (d  being  the  distance  from  the 
I        center  gun  and  d  the  angle  of  training). 

Of  what  use  are  converging  plates  ? 

11. — Investigate  an  expression  for  the  error  in  direction  due  to  the  sights  being  in- 
clined, in  terms  of  (6)  the  inclination  of  the  sights  and  (a)  the  angle  of  eleva- 
tion. 
12. — What  adjustments  are  necessary  when  placing  the  director  in  position  ? 

Explain  fully  how  to  test  their  accuracy. 

13. — Investigate  the  horizon  method  of  determining  the  distance  of  an  object. 
Are  there  any  objections  to  its  use? 
If  so,  what  ? 

GUNXKRY  LIEUTENANTS. 

(February,  1877.) 
FIRST  PAPER. 

1. — Explain  the  meaning  of  the  terms  "stress,"  "ultimate  tensile  strength,"  and 

"  limit  of  elasticity." 
2. — Distinguish  between  cast  iron  and  wrought  iron. 

Give  a  brief  description  of  a  method  of  obtaining  wrought  iron. 
3. — Define  the  term  "steel." 

Distinguish  as  clearly  and  fully  as  time  permits  between  wrought  iron  and  steel. 
What  have  been  hitherto  the  chief  obstacles  to  an  extended  use  of  the  latter? 
4. — No  possible  thickness  can  enable  a  cylinder  to  bear  a  pressure  from  within  greater 
on  each  square  inch  than  the  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  the  material ;  prove 
this. 
5. — Explain,  with  diagram,  the  principal  parts  of  a  9"  M.  L.  R.  gun  with  two  double 

coils. 

Describe  the  bushes  with  which  guns  are  vented. 
How  are  vents  examined  ? 


312  NAVAL    EDUCATION  -  APPENDIX. 

6.  —  With  the  uniform  twist  compare  the  pressure  required  to  produce  rotation  with. 

that  necessary  to  give  translation. 
Distinguish  between  uniform  and  increasing  twist. 
Which  absorbs  the  most  work  ? 

7.  —  Describe  the  elevating  gear  proposed  for  the  guns  of  the  Inflexible. 

What  are  its  advantages  ? 

Point  out  the  disadvantages  of  the  capstan-head  elevating  gear. 

8.  —  Explain,  with  a  figure,  the  forces  which  act  on  the  discharge  of  a  gun  mounted 

on  a  carriage  and  slide;  also  point  out  the  advantage  of  a  low  carriage. 

9.  —  When  a  charge  of  powder  is  exploded,  what  are  the  proportions  by  weight  of 

gases  and  solid  products  ? 
Give  an  outline  of  the  method  by  which  the  volume  of  gas  was  determined. 

10.  —  Establish  a  relation  between  the  pressure  and  density  when  a  charge  of  powder 

is  exploded  in  a  closed  vessel. 

11.  —  Calculate  the  velocity  of  a  projectile  whose  weight   is  180  Ibs.  when  fired  from  an 

8"  M.  L.  K.  gun  : 
Given  length  of  bore  .................................................  14.8  calibers. 

Charge  .................  ,  ......  ......................................  35  Ibs. 

Gravimetric  density  of  powder  .......................................     1 

Factor  of  effect  ......................................................  78.4 


Numberofvolumcsofespansion. 

5.0000  ...............................................  83.53 

5.8824  ...............................................  89.35 

6.2500  ...............................................  91.46 

6.6667  ...............................................  93.64 

12.  —  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  ''factor  of  effect"  ? 

Explain  fully  the  object  of  "air-spacing"  the  charge,  and  of  chambering  the  gun. 

Fourteen  days  allowed  for  this  question. 
Give  your  opinion  about  the  mounting,  working,  and  use  of  machine  guns  — 

1.  On  board  the  ship. 

2.  In  the  boats. 

3.  In  landing  operations. 

GUNNERY   LIEUTENANTS. 

(April,  1877.) 
FIRST  PAPER. 

1.  —  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  terms  elasticity  and  elastic  limit,  as  applied  to  metals. 

How  are  they  respectively  measured  ? 

2.  —  Summarize  the  properties  of  wrought  iron. 

3.  —  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  term  steel. 

4.  —  In  cylinders  of  metal,  the  power  exerted  to  resist  pressure  from  within  by  the 

different  parts  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the  parts  from 
the  axis  ;  prove  this. 

5.  —  The  angular  velocity  imparted  to  a  projectile  depends  upon  the  length  of  twist 

and  the  muzzle  velocity  of  translation  ;  prove  this. 

6.  —  Explain,  with  diagram,  the  principal  parts  of  a  64-pdr.  Mark  III  gun. 

What  considerations  determine  the  length  of  the  bore  of  a  gun  ? 

7.  —  Calculate  the  angle  of  deflection  corresponding  to  a  speed  of  14  knots,  when  firing 

at  an  object  distant  1,000  yards,  time  of  flight  2.5  seconds. 

Does  the  amount  of  deflection  required  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the  wind  vary 
with  the  distance  ?     Explain  your  answer. 


EXAMINATION    PAPERS,    GUNNERY   SHIP    EXCELLENT.         313 

8. — Find  the  mean  resistance  offered  by  the  compressor  to  the  recoil  of  9-pdr.  8-cwt ' 
gOto— 

1.  When  the  recoil  is 3  feet. 

2.  When  the  recoil  is 1  i nch. 

Given  the  weight  of  projectile 9f  Ibs. 

Initial  velocity  of  ditto 1, 380  feet. 

Weight  of  carriage 275  Ibs. 

9. — State  the  conditions  which  must  be  satisfied  by  a  good  elevating  arrangement. 
0. — Explain  fully  how  a  projectile  is  propelled  from  a  gun. 

11. — Calculate  the  velocity  of  a  projectile  whose  weight  is  89  Ibs.  when  fired  from  a 
64-pr.  M.  L.  R.  gun  : 

Given  the  caliber 6. 3  inches. 

Length  of  bore 15.  5  calibers. 

Charge 12  Ibs. 

Gravimetric  density 1. 

Factor  of  effect 76. 

*un,b(,  of  volnme.  of  expansion.  *ff*™*  S^&g^^feSS?" 

8.3333 101.00 

9.0909 103.82 

10.0000 106.87 

11.1111 110.18 

12. — What  means  have  been  successively  adopted  to  reduce  the  pressure  in  the  bore  ? 
And  how  ia  it  that  it  has  been  possible  to  combine  increased  velocity  with  a 
lower  maximum  pressure  ? 

Question  set  on  April  6,  and  papers  given  in  at  9  a.  m.  on  5th  May. 

Examine  the  question  of  the  armament  of  the  unanuored  steel  corvette  Mercury, 
whose  displacement  is  3,700  tons.  It  is  supposed  that  she  will  be  classed  as  a 
fifth-rate,  that  her  complement  will  be  250,  and  that  the  weight  allotted  to 
armament  is  112  tons. 

GUNNERY  LIEUTENANTS. 

(April  1,  1878.) 

FIRST  PAPER. 
1. — Explain  the  terms,  "tenacity,"  tensile  strength,"  "limit  of  elasticity"  as  applied 

to  metals.     How  are  they  respectively  measured  ? 

2. — Give  a  description  of  the  manufacture  of  a  steel  tube  for  a  heavy  gun  from  the 
time  the  ingot  leaves  the  manufacturer's  hands  until  it  is  ready  for  the  B  tube. 
How  is  the  temperature  at  which  the  A  tube  shall  be  toughened  determined  ? 
3. — Explain  the  meaning  of  the  term  "initial  tensions  and  varying  elasticities"  as 

applied  to  gun  construction. 
How  is  the  principle  carried  out — 

(a)  at  Woolwich. 
(6)  by  Whitworth. 
(c)  by  Palliser. 
(rf)  by  Rodman. 
4. — Enumerate  the  general  properties  of  wrought  iron,  and  give  a  description  of  the 

process  at  Woolwich  by  which  it  is  obtained  from  obsolete  cast-iron  material. 
5.  — What  is  meant  by  the  term  "jump"  of  a  gun  ?    A  9-pounder  was  laid  accurately 
horizontal  for  a  wooden  target  200  feet  distant ;  the  height  of  the  level  of  the 
axis  of  the  gun  was  marked  on  the  target;  on  firing  the  gnu,  the  shot  struck 
10  inches  above  this  level.     The  mean  velocity  was  found  to  be  1,370  f.  s. : 
Calculate  the  angle  of  departure  or  the  "jump"  of  the  gun. 
6. — How  js  the  \elocity  of  rotation  of  a  projectile  measured 


314  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Find  approximately  the  number  of  revolutions  per  second  and  also  the  angular 
velocity  of  the  projectile  of  the  7-iuch  6^-ton  gun  at  the  muzzle  ; 

Muzzle  velocity 1,525  f.  s. 

Caliber 7  inches. 

Twist 1  in  35  calibers. 

7. — What  means  have  been  adopted  to  ascertain  the  pressure,  volume  of  gas,  tem- 
perature of  explosion,  and  products  of  combustion,  when  a  charge  of  powder  is, 
exploded  in  a  closed  vessel  ? 

8. — What  is  the  actual  work  realized  by  110  Ibs.  of  B.  powder,  in  the  12  inch  35-tooi 
gun;  length  of  bore  =  16.5  calibers;  gravimetric  density  of  powder=l;  factor 
of  effect  93.1.  Hence  find  the  muzzle  velocity  of  projectile :  weight  700  lbs» 

Total  work  that  gunpowder 
Number  of  volumes  of  expansion.  is  capable  of  realizing  per  Ib.. 

burnt,  in  foot-tons. 

6.2500 91.45 

6.6667 93.64 

7.1429 95.94 

7.6923 98.39 

8.3333 100.00 

9. — What  is  considered  the  limiting  angle  of  penetration  of  our  service  projectiles? 
Give  approximately  the  percentage  of  work  lost  on  impact,  owing  to  the  conver- 
sion of  work  into  heat  in  the  case  of  projectiles  made  of — 
(a)  Wrought  iron. 
(6)  Cast  iron. 
(c)  Hard-tempered  steel. 
In  recent  experiments,  what  material  appears  to  recommend  itself  most  as  a  metal 

for  projectiles? 
10. — State  briefly  what  experiments  have  been  made  in  England  with  gun-cotton 

shells,  and  with  what  results  ? 

11. — What  method  was  adopted  by  the  Italian  commission  in  their  recent   experi- 
ments at  Spezia,  to  determine  the  velocity  of  shock  actually  necessary  for  per- 
foration ? 
If  V= velocity  of  shock  on  impact  Avith  target  (as  observed) 

v  —  velocity  of  exit  after  perforation 
Show  that 
Velocity  of  shock  actually  necessary  just  to  perforate =-j/v*"— -^v*' 

GUNNERY  LIEUTENANTS. 

(April,  1878.) 
SECOND  PAPER. 

1.— Define,  with  diagrams  where  necessary,  the  following  terms :  "Angle  of  fire,"  "  an- 
gle of  descent,"  "line  of  sight,"  "terminal  velocity,"  "high  angle  fire." 
2. — Describe  the  effect  of  the  resistance  of  the  air  combined  with  the  rotation  of  pro- 
jectiles of  the  service  form. 
What  theories  are  advanced  to  explain  the  deviation  of  these  projectiles  to  the 

right? 
3. — Explain,  with  diagram,  the  principle  of  the  Boulengs  chronograph,  and  describe 

how  a  velocity  is  obtained  with  it. 

What  advantage  has  it  over  the  Bashforth  chronograph  ? 

4. — An  experiment  is  made  with  a  Bashforth  chronograph  to  ascertain  a  velocity  at 
one  of  the  screens  distant  (x)  from  the  muzzle  of  the  gun.     The  time  (l~)  is  end 
off  from  the  diagram  on  the  cylinder,  and  also  the  time  of  passing  the  interme- 
diate screens,  which  are  a  known  distance  (h)  apart. 
Show  how  an  equation  may  be  formed,  giving  the  velocity  required.  * 


EXAMINATION    FOR   ADMISSION    TO    THE    BORDA.  315 

5. — The  velocity  of  the  projectile  of  the  experimental  16-in.  80-ton  gun.  was  found  to 
be  1,480  f.  s.  at  400  yards  from  the  muzzle  of  the  gun.  Calculate  its  initial 
velocity,  using  Bashforth's  tables. 

Weight  of  shot 1,700  Ibs. 

Diameter  of  shot 15.92  inches. 

6. — Assuming  that  the  second  differences  of  the  times  between  the  Bashforth  screens 
are  constant,  and  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  varies  as  the  (velocity)3.  Prove 
Helie's  formula : 

<;=—  V- 
1  -+•  c  V  x' 

When  v  —  velocity  at  any  point. 
V  =  muzzle  velocity. 
x  —  distance  from  muzzle  in  feet. 

o  =  constant,  depending  on  form,  weight,  and  velocity  of  shot. 
7. — What  influence  has  the  form  of  the  base  of  a  shot  on  the  total  resistance  offered 

to  it  by  the  air  ? 

Calculate  the  resistance  offered  by  the  air  to  the  motion  of  an  "  ogival-headed 
shot." 

w  =  weight  of  projectile 180  Ibs. 

v  =  velocity 1,200  f.  s. 

d  =  diamemter  of  shot 7.92  inches. 

k  for  that  velocity 109.5. 

8. — In  what  plane  should  the  racers  be  laid  ? 

Explain  how  you  would  test  the  accuracy  of  the  director  and  racers. 
State  the  advantage  of  the — 

(1)  Correction  plates. 

(2)  Correction  tables. 

(3)  Both  plates  and  tables. 

9. — Calculate  the  total  horizontal  correction  to  be  applied  to  the  director  when  placed 
on  the  starboard  side. 

d  =  distance  abaft  ceu ter  gun 60  feet* 

R  =  range 800  yards. 

t  =  time  of  flight 2  seconds. 

»  =  speed 10  knots. 

6  =  permanent  angle  of  deflection 1°10'. 

0  =  angle  of  elevation 1°15'. 

Why  will  this  table  be  inaccurate  for  the  port  director  ? 
10. — The  charges  of  the  guns  of  the  Bacchante  have  been  altered  from  full  to  battering  j 

why  is  it  necessary  to  alter  the  correction  tables  for  her  director  ? 
11. — State  the  advantages  of  the  Dreadnought  over  the  Thunderer,  as  regards  her 

offensive  and  defensive  strength. 
Give  a  diagram  of  the  former's  armor  plating. 


NOTE     J. 

QUESTIONS  'SET  AT  THE  EXAMINATION  FOR  ADMISSION  TO  THE  FRENCH 
NAVAL  SCHOOL  IN  1878. 

WRITTEN  EXAMINATIOX. 
FRENCH  COMPOSITION. 
(June  11,  8  to  10  a.  in.) 
Siege  de  Gergovie  par  C6sar. 

Vercinge'torix  n'ayant  pu  sauver  Avaricum,  la  capitale  des  Bituriges,  ui  empecher 
Ce"sar  de  passer  1'Allier,  6tait  alle"  s'etablir  a  Gergovie,  la  capitale  des  Arvernes,  pour 


316  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

laisser  aux  conjures  le  temps  de  se  re"unir  ct  de  s'orgauiser  avant  de  livrer  une  bataille 
decisive  aux  envahisseurs  de  la  Gaule. 

Gergovie  6tait  une  place  tres-forte,  assise  sur  une  hauteur  et  entour6e  presque  de 
tons  c6te"s  d'une  ceinture  de  montagnes  dont  elle  e"tait  se'pare'e  par  une  plaine  e"troite. 

Vercing6torix  avait  rassernble"  sur  ce  point  des  forces  noinbreuses  qui,  couronnant 
toutes  les  hauteurs,  dominaient  entierement  la  plaine. 

C6sar  enleva  un  des  plateaux  qui  faiaaient  face  a  la  ville,  et  lut  livra  plusieurs  at- 
taques,  mais  ne  pouvant  engager  1'enuenii  a  une  bataille  et  impatient  d'obtenir  un  auc- 
ces  pour  pre"venir  la  defection  de  ses  allies,  il  tenta  une  surprise  et  fit  donuer  un  assaut ; 
il  laisse  entendre  dans  ses  Coramentaires  qu'il  e"prouva  uu  fahec  considerable.  Sue"tone 
avoue  sans  detour  que  les  Romains  furent  repouss6s  avec  des  pertes  e"normes. 

LATIN. 

(June  11,  1  p.  m.  to  2.30  p.  in.) 

C;i'sar,  ut  Brundisium  venit,  contionatua  apud  milites,  quoniam  prope  ad  finem 
laborum  ac  periculorum  essct  perventuui,  :equo  animo  mancipia  atque  impedimenta  in 
Italia  relinquerent,  ipsi  expediti  naves  conscenderent,  quo  maior  numerus  militum 
posset  imponi,  ouiuiaque  ex  victoria  et  ex  sua  liberalitate  sperarent,  conclamantibus 
omnibus,  imperaret,  quod  vellet,  quodcumque  imperavisset,  se  aequo  animo  esse  fac- 
turos;  pridie  nonas  ianuarias  naves  solvit,  impositis,  lit  supra  demonstratum  est, 
legionibus  septem.  Postridie  ten-am  attigit  Ceraunioruni.  Saxa  inter  et  alia  loca 
periculosa  quietam  nactus  stationem,  et  portus  omnes  timens.  quos  teneri  ab  adver- 
sariis  arbitrabatur,  ad  eum  locum,  qui  appellatur  Paljeste,  omnibus  navibus  ad  unam 
incolumibus  milites  exposuit. — (Caesar,  de  bello  civili,  lib.  iii,  cap.  6.) 

ENGLISH  VERSION. 
(June  11,  3.15  p.  m.  to  4.15  p.  m.) 

On  voyait  la  cote  et  le  ainistre  cap  de  Trafalgar  qui  a  donu6  son  noin  a  la  bataille. 
Un  vent  dangereux  commencait  a  se  lever,  la  unit  a  devenir  sombre,  et  les  vaisseaux 
anglais,  manoeuvraut  difficilement  a  cause  de  leurs  avaries,  e"taient  obliges  de  rernor- 
qner  ou  d'escorter  dix-sept  vaisaeaux  prisouniers.  Bieutdt  le  vent  acquit  plus  de  vio- 
lence, et  aux  horreurs  d'une  sanglante  bataille  succ6derent  les  horreurs  d'une  affreuse 
tempete ;  comme  si  le  ciel  eut  voulu  punir  les  deux  nations  les  plua  civilise>s  du  globe, 
les  plus  dignes  de  le  dominer  par  leur  union,  dea  fureurs  auxquelles  elles  venaient  de 
se  livrer. 

ARITHMETIC  AND  GEOMETRY. 
(June  12,  8  a.  in.  to  11  a.  m.) 

1. — State  and  explain  the  theory  of  the  periodical  fractions  and  apply  to  TTT  and  fW- 
2. — Prove  that  periodic  fractions,  derived  from  irreducible  fractions  of  the  same  de- 
nominator, have  the  same  number  of  figures  in  a  period.     Take  as  an  example 
TTT  and  -We. 

3. — Prove  that  the  expression  for  the  volume  generated  by  a  circular  segment  is  £  Z>2  H; 
D  being  the  chord  and  H  its  projection  upon  the  diameter.  As  an  application 
inscribe  a  right  cone  in  a  sphere  such  that  its  volume  shall  be  one-half  of  the 
ispherical  segment  in  which  it  is  inscribed. 

DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY. 
(June  12,  1  to  2.30  p.  m.) 

A  point  situated  in  the  first  dihedral  angle  is  situated  5  cm.  from  the  horizontal  plane 
and  4|  cm.  from  the  vertical  plane. 

This  point  is  the  center  of  a  regular  hexagon,  whose  plane  is  parallel  to  the  hori' 
zontal  plane,  and  one  of.  whose  aides,  parallel  to  the  vertical  plane,  is  3  cm.  in  length' 


EXAMINATION   FOR    ADMISSION    TO    THE    BORDA.  317 

This  hexagon  is  the  common  base  of  two  regular  pyramids,  of  which  one  has  its  vertex 
iu  the  horizontal  plane,  and  the  vertex  of  the  other  is  situated  at  a  distance  of  7  cm. 
from  this  plane.  It  is  required  to  construct  the  shadow  of  this  pyramid  upon  the 
planes  of  projection,  knowing  that  there  exists  in  the  first  dihedral  angle  a  source  of 
light  which  sends  its  rays  parallel  to  a  right  line,  making  an  angle  of  19°  with  the 
horizontal  plane  and  33°  with  the  vertical  plane. 

ALGEBRA  AND  TRIGONOMETRY. 

(June  13,  8  to  11  a.  m.) 
1.  Find  the  maxima  and  minima  values  of  the  function 


~   x2-  505  +  4 

Examine  the  variation  of  this  function  for  all  values  of  x  from  —  ao  to  -(-  oo  ,  and 
trace  the  corresponding  curve. 
2.  Resolve  the  triangle  ABC,  having  given 

a  =  3875.475  m. 
b  =  4637.  095m. 
c  =  0143.877m.. 

Determine  the  surface  in  hectares. 

ORAL  EXAMINATIONS.  —  PARIS. 

NOTE.  —  Three  sets  of  questions  have  been  selected  from  a  large  number  given  at  the 
Paris  examination.  They  have  been  taken  at  random,  and  they  are  fair  examples  of 
the  questions  at  all  the  centers  of  examination. 

EXAMINATION  OF  CANDIDATE  A. 
1.  —  ARITHMETIC. 

1.  —  Let  A  =  av  bi  cr,  a  number  of  which,  a,  &,  and  c,  are  the  prime  factors.     Find  the 

number  of  divisors  of  A. 

2.  —  In  how  many  ways  can  the  number  A  be  decomposed  into  two  factors  which  are 

prime  to  each  other  f 

3.  —  Explain  the  rule  of  simple  interest. 

2.  —  GEOMETRY  OF  SOLID  BODIES. 

4.  —  Give  the  theory  of  symmetrical  figures. 

5.  —  Determine  the  volume  generated  by  a  segment  of  a  circle  which  revolves  about 

an  axis  passing  through  the  center  of  the  circle. 

6.  —  The  continuous  trace  of  an  ellipse.     The  length  of  the  radii  vcctores  passing  through 

the  extremity  of  the  shorter  axis.     Draw  a  tangent  to  the  ellipse  (1)  through  a 
point  on  the  curve  (2)  through  an  exterior  point. 

3.  —  ALGEBRA. 

7.  —  Give  the  sum  of  the  terms  of  a  geometrical  progression. 

8.  —  What  does  the  formula  s  =   ^    a  become  when  q  becomes  equal  to  1  f 

q—  I 

9.  —  Give  the  formula  for  computing  interest. 

10.  —  How  long  is  it  necessary  that  a  capital,  A,  should  remain  at  interest,  at  a  given 

rate,  in  order  to  become  C  f 

11.  —  Investigate  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  two  numbers,  x  and  y,  whose  sum  is  a  con- 

stant. 

12.  —  Define  a  maximum  and  a  minimum. 


318       .  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

4. — TRIGONOMETRY. 
13. — Determine  x  in  the  equation 

5  sin  x  +  3  cos  x  =  7. 
14. — Ls  there  a  rapid  solution  of  the  following  general  equation  ? 

a  sin  x  -f-  b  cos  x  =  C. 
5. — DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY. 

15. — Having  given  two  right  lines,  of  which  one  is  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal 
plane  and  the  other  to  any  line  whatever,  it  is  required  to  find  the  shortest 
distance  between  them. 

16. — Are  there  several  methods  of  finding  the  shortest  distance  between  two  right  lines  ? 

6. — FRENCH. 

DICTATION. — Ce  fat  dans  cette  place  qu'il  concut  le  dessein  de  detr6ner  le  roi  de 
Pologne  par  les  mains  des  Polonais  mSmes.  La  e"tant  un  jour  a  table,  tout  oc- 
cup6  de  cette  entreprise,  et  observant  sa  sobrie'te'  extreme,  dans  un  silence  pro- 
fond,  paraissant  comme  enseveli  dans  ses  grandes  ide"es,  un  colonel  allemand, 
qui  assistait  a  son  diner,  dit  assez  haut  pour  etre  entendu,  que  les  repas  que  le 
tsar  et  les  rois  de  Pologne  avaient  faits  au  meme  endroit,  e"taient  un  pen  diffe"- 
rents  de  ceux  de  Sa  Majeste'. — (Voltaire.) 

Continue  the  reading  of  the  extract  with  explanations. 

7. — GEOGRAPHY. 

Draw  a  map  of  the  basin  of  the  river  Po,  describing  its  northern  tributaries. 

8. — HISTORY. 

1. — The  Visigoths:  Their  origin;  their  manners  and  customs;  their  wars. 

2. — The  government  of  Saint  Louis:  Give  an  account  of  everything  bearing  on  the 

subject. 

9. — ENGLISH. 
1. — ENGLISH  VERSION. — 

Un  astrologue  uu  jour  se  laissa  choir 

Au  fonds  d'un  puits  ;  on  lui  dit:  "  Pauvre  b6te, 

Tandis  qu'a  peiue  a  tes  pieds  tu  peux  voir, 

Penses-tu  lire  au-dessus  de  la  tete  ?  " 

y. — Dictation  at  the  blackboard  of  a  passage  from  Irviug's  Columbus,  with  explanation. 
3. — Give  the  meaning  of  the  verb  get;  name  its  derivatives. 
Give  the  meaning  of  next. 

10. — LATIN. 

1. — Translate  and  explain  Book  I,  chapter  49,  of  Cesar's  Gallic  War,  from   Ubi  eum 

castris  se  tenere  to  ad  eum  locum  venit. 
2. — Explain  delegit,  intellexit.     Give  the  French  noun  and  adjective  derived  from  the 

verb  prohibere.     Explain  acie. 

11. — GREEK. 

Translate  Book  I,  chap.  10,  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis  from  'Kurnvda  rf.y  Kiyou  to 

aTparbtrefinv. 
Give  tUe  French  derivatives  of  KeQahij. 

«XAMINATION  OF  CANDIDATE  B. 

1. — ARITHMETIC. 

L — Show  that  wheu  a  nuoiber  divides  the  product  of  two  factors  and  is  prime  to  one 
of  them,  it  divides  the  other. 


EXAMINATION    FOE    ADMISSION    TO    THE    BORDA.  319 

y. — A  number,  N,  has  as  many  divisors  above  the  square  root  as  below.     If  the  number 

of  divisors  is  odd,  N  is  a  perfect  square. 
3. — Extract  the  square  root  of  a  whole  number. 

2.—  GEOMETRY  OF  SOLID  BODIES. 

1. — Determine  the  volume  generated  by  a  triangle  turning  about  an  axis  which  passes 

through  one  of  its  vertices, 
y. — Prove  that  two  triangular  pyramids  of  equivalent  bases  and  of  the  same  altitude 

are  equivalent. 
3. — Two  tetrahedrons  are  similar  when  they  have  equal  dihedral  angles  comprised 

between  two  similar  faces. 
4. — The  property  of  the  tangent  to  a  parabola.     Draw  a  tangent  (1)  through  a  point 

on  the  parabola  ;  (2)  through  an  exterior  point. 
5. — The  generation  of  a  helix  and  the  property  of  a  tangent  to  this  curve. 

3. — ALGEBRA. 

1. — Discuss  the  equation 

ax-  -f-  px  -\-  c  =  0. 

What  value  do  x'  and  x"  approach  when  x  approaches  0  ¥ 

2. — Determine  the  rectangular  parallelopiped  of  maximum  volume  having  a  given 
surface. 

4. — TRIGONOMETRY. 
Resolve  a  triangle  having  given  two  sides  and  the  angle  opposite  one  of  them. 

5. — DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY. 

1. — Find  the  angle  between  two  planes  whose  traces  are  in  a  given  right  line. 
:2. — Determine  the  intersection  of  two  planes. 
3. — How  many  lines  are  there  perpendicular  to  the  ground-line? 

6. — FRENCH. 

DICTATION. — Un  fanfaron,  amateur  de  la  chasse,  venant  de  perdre  uu  chieu  de 
bonne  race,  qu'il  soupconnait  dans  le  corps  d'uii  lion,  vit  un  berger.  "  Euseigne- 
moi,  de  grace,  de  mou  voleur,"  lui  dit-il,  "la  maisou,  que  de  ce  pas  je  me  fasse 
raison."  Le  berger  dit,  "  C'est  vers  cette  montagne.  En  lui  payant  de  tribut, 
un  moutou  par  chaque  mois,  j'erre  dans  la  campague  comme  il  me  plait,  et>  je 
suis  en  repos." 

Continue  the  reading  of  the  extract  with  explanations. 

7. — GEOGRAPHY. 

J.. — Give  a  sketch  of  the  French  shore  of  the  Channel. 

:2. — Draw  a  map  of  Russia.     Give  an  account  of  its  physical  geography  and  of  the 
cities  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country. 

8. — HISTORY. 

1. — Give  an  account  of  the  form  of  government  and  of  the  legislation  of  the  Teutonic 
nations  that  invaded  the  empire  in  the  fifth  century.  State  the  principal  differ- 
ences between  the  Teutonic  and  Roman  laws.  Give  an  account  of  the  Salic  law. 
-Name  the  first  six  or  seven  kings  of  France.  Give  the  dates  and  duration  of  their 

reigns. 

-Give  an  account  of  the  enfranchisement  of  the  communes,  stating  the  causes  which 
led  to  it.  Why  were  there  no  communes  in  the  royal  domain  ? 

9. — ENGLISH. 

ENGLISH  VERSION. — Les  montagnes  voisines  etaient  couvertes  de  pampres  verts 
qui  pendaient  en  festous ;  le  raisin,  plus  e"clatant  que  la  ponrpre,  ne  pouvait  se 
.cacher  sous  les  feuilles  et  la  vigne  etait  accable"e  sous  son  fruit. 


320  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Dictation  at  the  blackboard  of  a  passage  from  Irving's  Columbus,  with  explana- 
tions. 

Explain  rather.  Give  the  plural  of  gulf.  Give  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the 
plural  of  nouns.  Name  the  nouns  in/  which  take  ve  in  the  plural.  Conjugate 
standing. 

10  —LATIN. 

Translate  Book  I,  verses  740-746,  of  the  ^Eneid. 

Explain  geminosque  Triones.     Give  the  derivation  of  (the  French  word) septentrwn ; 

the  gender,  number,  and  case  of  cytliam. 
Give  the  construction  and  force  of  docnil,  canlt,  pesudes.     Decline  imber. 

11. — GREEK. 

Anabasis,  Book  I,  chapter  6,  from  Oirof  KiOpu  to  fiiuyyel/Mi. 
Decline  LTTTTO^,  'nnre'at;,  paadsi.     Inflect  the  last  word. 

EXAMINATION  OF  CANDIDATE  C. 
1. — ARITHMETIC. 

1. — Two  irreducible  fractions  having  the  same  denominator  have  the  same  iiumber  of 
decimal  figures  in  the  period  when  the  fractions  are  reduced  to  a  decimal  form. 
Example :  T|T  and  I*]3!- 

2. — Give  the  rule  of  simple  interest. 

Ait 

Derive  the  formula  «=       ,  and  resolve  the  equation,  taking  A  and  t  successively 
100 

as  the  unknown  quantities.     Find  these  two  unknown  quantities  by  analysis. 
2. —GEOMETRY  OF  SOLID  BODIES. 

1.  — The  volume  generated  by  a  triangle  turning  about  an  axis  passing  through  one  of 
its  vertices.  Place  upon  the  surface  of  the  triangle  the  perpendicular  let  fall 
upon  the  axis  through  the  center  of  the  side  opposite  to  the  axis.  Determine 
the  position  of  the  axis  in  order  that  the  volume  may  be  a  maximum. 

2. — The  definition  of  an  ellipse. 

3  . — How  is  a  tangent  to  the  curA-e  to  be  drawn  (1)  through  a  point  on  the  curve  (de- 
termine the  locus  of  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  let  fall' from  the  tangent  from 
a  focus),  (2)  through  an  exterior  point. 


1. — What,  is  to  be  understood  by  a  polynomial,  rational  and  entire  in  xi 
2. — How  would  you  ascertain  whether  this  polynomial  is  divisible  by  a;  —  a  ? 
3. — In  what  cases  is  xm — am  divisible  by  x-\-a  f 
4. — Decompose  the  function 

y  =ax2-f  lx  +  c 

into  two  factors  of  the  first  degree. 
5.  — Find  the  sum  of  the  first  n  odd  numbers. 

4. — TRIGONOMETRY. 
1. — What  does  the  fraction 


1  —  cos  x 

become  when  x  =  0  ? 

2. — Show  how  a  right  line  may  be  determined  beyond  an  obstacle.  Suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  one  is  placed  at  a  point  A  in  AC,  whence  AC  may  be  readily  deter- 
mined. Between  C  and  D  is  an  intervening  obstacle.  How  may  DB,  the  pro- 
longation of  AC,  be  determined  f 


EXAMINATION   FOR    ADMISSION    TO    THE    BORDA.  321 

— DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY. 

Find  the  projections  of  the  intersection  of  two  given  planes. 

6. — FRENCH. 

DICTATION. — Auguste  aima  mieux  alors  recevoir  les  lois  dures  de  son  vainqueur 
que  de  sea  sujets.  II  se  de"termina  a  demander  la  paix  au  roi  de  Suede,  et  vou- 
lut  entamer  avec  lui  un  traite"  secret.  II  fallait  cacher  cette  demarche  au  se"nat 
qu'il  regardait  comme  un  ennemi  encore  plus  intraitable. — (Voltaire.) 

Continue  the  reading  with  explanations. 

7. — GEOGRAPHY. 

1. — Draw  a  map  of  the  Spanish  peninsula.  Give  an  account  of  its  physical  geography, 
and  fix  the  position  of  the  principal  cities. 

2. — Give  the  political  history  of  the  county  of  Venaissin,  and  describe  its  physical  char- 
acteristics. 

8. — HISTORY. 

1. — Give  an  account  of  the  Ostrogoths  and  their  origin.  Narrate  the  events  of  the 
reign  of  Theodoric,  noting  the  system  of  government,  the  legislation,  and  th» 
extent  of  Theodoric's  kingdom. 

2. — Give  a  full  account  of  the  foundation  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies. 
The  Norman  conquest  of  Sicily. 

9. — ENGLISH. 

1. — ENGLISH  TRANSLATION. — On  exposait  une  peinture 

Ou  Partisan  avait  trace 

Un  lion  d'irninense  stature 

Par  un  seul  homme  terrasse. 

Les  regardants  en  tiraient  gloire. 

Un  lion  en  passant  rabattit  leur  caquet : 

"  Je  vois  bien,  dit-il,  qu'en  effet, 

Ou  vous  donne  ici  la  victoire, 

Mais  1'ouvrier  vous  a  de"cus ; 

II  avait  liberte  de  feindre ; 

Avec  plus  de  raison  nous  aurions  le  dessus, 

Si  mes  confreres  savaient  peindre." 

2. — Dictation  at  the  blackboard  of  a  passage  from  Columbus. 

3. — Construction  and  force  of  the  words  no,  one,  however,  indulge,  unknown,  how,  show, 
Now,  height. 

10. — LATIN. 

Translate  CsBsar,  B.  G.,  I.  47,  from  Biduo  post  Arlovlstus  to  aliquem  ad  se  mitteref, 
giving  explanations  of  allusions.  Give  the  construction  and  force  of  perfector, 
agi,  iterum;  mode  and  tense  of  constitaeret,  vellet;  force  of  cceptce.  Decline  aE» 
quern,  is,  Me,  sutnn. 

11. — GREEK. 

Translate  Xenophon,  'Anabasis,  I,  4,  $  11,  from  "Evrevdev  i~e  awei  to 
Conjugate  and  give  construction  of  £fe/luiWt.     Decline  tvpof,  ne-tdhi]. 

S.  Ex.  51 21 


322  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

NOTE     K. 

COURSE  IN  ENGLISH  NAUTICAL  LANGUAGE  ON  BOARD  THE  BORDA. 

[Extracts.] 

A  ship  is  said  to  be  sailing  before  the  wind  when  she  has  the  wind  right  aft.  Both 
sheets  are  then  hauled  aft,  the  sails  are  set  at  right  angles  with  the  keel ;  the  stay- 
sails are  hauled  down,  and  the  mainsail  is  drawn  up  in  the  brails,  that  the  wind  may 
act  upon  the  foresail ;  the  helm  is  put  amidships,  and  the  only  thing  the  steersman  has 
to  do  is  to  put  the  helm  a  little  to  starboard  or  larboard,  in  order  to  keep  the  vessel 
from  yawing. 

COMMANDS   IN   TACKING. 

Ready  about,  or  Ready  all — Pare  a  virer.  } 

Haul  over  the  Koom-Bordez  le  gui.  I  About  ^-Enwyez. 

Helrn  alee  gently — Labarre  dessous  en  douceur. 

Ease  off;  or,  Let  go  the  jib  sheets — Filez  las  foes.  J 

Up  tacks  and  sheets — Leve  les  lofs. 

(Stand  by,  or  Get  to  the)  after  braces — Aux  Iras  de  derriere. 

Haul  mainsail,  haul — Derriere  changes. 

Bel  a  y — Am  arrez. 

(Stand  by  the)  head  braces — Aux  ~bras  de  devanl. 

Haul  off,  haul ;  Let  go  and  haul — Devant  changez. 

(Stand  by  the)  head  bowlines — Boulines  devant. 

after  bowlines —  derriere. 

or  head  and  after  bowlines — Boulines  par  tout, 
Haul — Holez ;  Belay — Amarrez. 

Haul  aft ;  or,  Sheet  the  courses ;  or  )  B    d     ,     6  7 

Fore  and  main  sheets.  5  U( 

Haul  taut  the  weather  braces — Appuyez  les  bras  du  vent. 

Sheet  the  jibs;  or  \Bnrdez  les  foes 

Haul  aft  the  jib-sheets.  $  f9          M  Joc8' 
Clear  or  coil  the  ropes — Parez  l#8  manoeuvres. 

A  compound  engine  is  one  that  uses  the  same  steam  at  both  high  and  low  pressure, 
the  object  being  to  take  as  much  elastic  force  as  possible  out  of  the  steam  before  con- 
densing it. 

Gun-cotton  is  easily  exploded  by  percussion  or  ignition,  and  any  weight  of  this 
preparation  is  a  good  deal  more  effective  than  the  equivalent  weight  of  gunpowder. 
It  is  well-suited  to  the  working  and  blowing  up  of  mines,  but  is  not  used  for  military 
purposes,  on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  may  be  ignited  by  friction,  percus- 
sion, and  heat. 


NOTE   L. 

SYLLABUS  OF  LECTURES  ON  MARINE  ENGINEERING.— BORDA. 

FIRST   YEAR. 
I. 

Elementary  study  of  the  action  of  a  marine  engine. 

1. — Steam. — Definitions;  saturated  steam,  dry  and  wet  steam,  superheated  steam;  for- 
mation, superheating,  and  condensation  of  steam.  Pressure.  Latent  heat  of 
steam.  Instruments  for  measuring  the  pressure  and  vacuum.  Bourdon's  ma- 
nometer. Vacuum  indicator.  Density  of  dry  saturated  steam. 


COURSE    IN    MARINE    ENGINEERING BORDA.  823 

2. — Elementary  explanation  of  the  action  and  working  of  steam  in  a  cylinder. — Essen- 
tial parts  of  an  engine.  Introduction,  exhaustion;  absolute  pressure;  back 
pressure;  effective  pressure.  Condensing  and  non-condensing  engines.  Con- 
denser, vacuum.  Back  pressure  in  the  cylinder  compared  with  the  pressure  in 
the  boiler.  Double-acting  engine ;  single-acting  engine ;  atmospheric  engine. 
Mechanical  work.  Kilogrammeter ;  horse-power.  Work  of  a  force  acting  in 
the  direction  of  the  motion,  or  otherwise.  Graphic  representation  of  the  work 
of  a  variable  or  constant  force.  Mean  effort  of  a  variable  effort.  Moving  force, 
resisting  force,  and  effective  force  of  steam  in  a  cylinder.  Advantages  of  the 
condenser.  Effective  power  of  engi  lies  in  the  different  conditions  of  working. 

3. — Transmission  of  movement  from  the  piston  to  the  shaft. — Connecting  rod  and 
crank.  Dead  centers;  travel  of  the  piston  from  one  dead  center  to  the  other; 
top  and  bottom  of  a  cylinder;  names  of  the  dead  centers  and  of  the  strokes  of 
the  piston.  Simultaneous  positions  of  the  crank,  piston,  and  connecting-rod ; 
half-stroke.  •  Angularity  of  the  connecting-rod ;  its  influence.  Summary  no- 
tions of  the  correlative  movements  of  the  piston  and  the  shaft. 

4. — Elementary  explanation  of  the  regulation  of  engines. — Expansion:  change  of  mo- 
tion of  the  piston.  Limited  admission  ;  leads;  compression ;  clearance.  Graphic 
representation  of  the  effective  work  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder,  taking  into  ac- 
count the  adjustment  of  the  valve-gear.  Advantage  of  the  exhaust-lead. 
Curves  of  expansion.  Graphic  construction  of  the  general  equation  PFa  =  P0  V0  — 
constant.  Particular  case  where  x  - 1 ;  that  is,  the  case  most  often  met  with. 
Theoretical  expression  of  the  work  of  steam  during  expansion.  Advantages  and 
inconveniences  of  expansion.  Action  of  the  steam-jacket. 

II. 

Complete  description  of  a  screw-engine.     Classification  of  the  principal  systems. 

1. — General  description  of  an  elementary  screw-engine. 

2. — Mode  of  action  of  detail  parts. — Transmission  of  movement.  Distribution  of  steam. 
Jet  and  surface  condensers.  Advantages  of  surface  condensers.  Boiler-feeding 
apparatus.  Bilge-pump. 

3. — Classification  of  marine  engines,  principal  systems. — Classification.  Geometrical 
description.  Beam  engine.  Oscillating  engine.  Direct-acting  engine.  Back- 
acting  engine.  Trunk  engine. 

III. 

Complete  exposition  of  the  distribution  of  the  steam  ly  the  slide-valve  or  by  separate  cut-off 

dear. 

1. — The  eccentric. — Its  working.  Description  of  the  transmission  of  movement  by  a 
fixed  eccentric  ;  by  eccentric  with  variable  angular  advance.  Example  of  sys- 
tem of  hooking-on  gear. 

2. — Slide-valves. — Definitions.  Valve-faces ;  valve-seats.  Two  kinds  of  slide-valve. 
Elementary  description  of  the  working  of  a  three-ported  slide-valve.  D-valve; 
explanation  of  its  working.  Comparison  of  the  working  of  the  two  kinds  of 
slide-valves. 

Adjustment  of  a  slide-valve;  stroke;  attachment  of  the  valve-stem.  Angle  of 
lead.  Lap.  Total  area  of  ports.  Results  of  the  adjustment  of  a  slide-valve. 
Steam-lead.  Greatest  opening  of  the  ports.  Wire-drawing  steam.  Exhaust- 
lead,  Compression.  R&mme'  of  the  functions  of  the  slide-valve. 

3. — Mechanism  of  the  reversing-gear. — Principle  of  the  reversement  of  motion.    Means 
of  carrying  out  this  principle.     Geometrical  study  of  the  reversing  mechanism. 
First  system:  Single  eccentric,   with  vtriable  advance:  (1)  by  means  of  a  slip- 
eccentric  ;  (2)  by  means  of  an  adjustable  eccentric.     Mazeline's  system. 


32-i  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Second  system  :  Two  eccentrics,  with  fixed  advance :  (1)  drop-hook  motion  ;  system 

of  Croiisot ;  (*>)  by  link-work.     Stephenson's  link. 

4. — Variable  cilt-ofls. — Variable  cut-offs  driven  by  cams  ;  by  an  adjustable  eccentric, 
the  rut-off  valve-  being  wide  open  at  the  end  of  a  stroke;  at  half-stroke.  Cut- 
off driven  by  a  fixed  eccentric,  the  stroke  of  the  expansion-valve  being  varia- 
ble, and  the  valve  opening  wide  at  the  end  of  a  stroke ;  at  half-stroke. 

IV. 

Steam-generators. 

1. — Division  and  classification. 

2. — Ordinary  rectangular  boiler,  tubular  boiler,  return  tubular  boiler,  low-pressure 
boiler.  General  description  of  the  accessory  parts.  Fire-tools.  Working  of  a 
boiler.  Principal  dimensions  of  return  tubular  boilers,  two  types.  Rectangular 
boiler.  Arrangement  of  boilers. 

3. — Details  of  construction  of  boilers  and  their  parts. — Mode  of  connecting  the  fixed 
pieces ;  bolts,  viz,  tap-bolts,  stud-bolts,  dowels,  rivets.  Boiler-plates ;  mode  of 
assemblage.  Angle  irons. 

Dead  plates,  grates,  bearer-bars,  lugs,  bridge-walls.  Diagonal  bracing,  longitudi- 
nal and  bridge-bracing.  Man-hole  plates.  Tubes  ;  their  fastening  on  the  tube- 
sheet,  ferules  ;  beading :  movable  tubes.  Langloir's  system.  Gautelme's  system. 
Toscer's  system.  Fixed  and  movable  pipes.  Natural  draught  produced  by 
the  smoke-pipe.  Forced  draught. 

Check-valves.  Glass  water-gauge ;  putting  the  glass  tube  in  place.  Gauge-cocks 
Blow-off  cock.  Safety-valve.  Dimensions  and  load  of  a  safety-valve.  Safety- 
valve  for  small  boilers  at  high  pressure.  Atmospheric  valve.  Stop-valve. 
Communicating-valve.  Dry  pipes  and  superheaters. 

Pipes  and  valves.  Joints  with  fixed  and  movable  flanges.  Soldered  and  riveted 
flanges.  Slip-joint.  Single- way,  two-way,  and  four- way  cocks.  Hollow-plug 
cock.  Sea-cocks.  Kingston  valve. 

4. — Cylindrical  boilers. — Return  tubular  and  high-pressure  boiler.  General  description 
of  boiler  with  appendages.  Arrangement  of  brace-tubes.  Method  of  joining  the 
boiler-plates.  Principal  dimensions. 

5. — Short  description  of  the  principal  types  of  boilers  in  use. — Tubular  boiler.  Side- 
flue  boiler.  Cylindrical  boiler  for  launch.  Belleville  boiler  for  launch ;  work- 
ing of  this  boiler.  Details  of  feed  regulator. 

V. 

Management  of  engines  and  boilers. 

1. — Working  the  engine. — Preparations  for  starting.  Blowing  through  and  turning 
over.  Direct  blowing  through  of  the  condenser.  Starting.  Increasing  or  re- 
ducing speed.  Final  stop.  General  care  to  be  given  to  the  engine  while  in 
motion. 

2. — Fuel  arid  combustion. — Calorific  power.  Evaporative  power.  Air  of  combustion. 
Space  occupied  by  a  given  weight  of  coal.  Manner  of  burning  of  the  fuel. 
Conditions  of  good  combustion.  Imperfect  combustion.  Smoke,  soot,  clinker ; 
slag. 

General  character  of  coal ;  coal,  properly  so  called;  rich  and  poor  coals ;  hard  or 
compact  coals.  Anthracite.  Lignite.  Conglomerate  or  pressed  fuel.  Bri- 
quettes. 

3. — Management  of  fires. — Priming  the  furnaces.  Lighting.  Care  of  the  fires  while 
the  engine  is  in  motion.  Increasing  and  moderating  fires.  Banking  fires. 
Forcing  fires.  Hauling  fires. 

4. — Feeding  and  blowing. — Filling  the  boilers.  Keeping  up  a  constant  level.  Feeding 
during  a  stop.  Salts  in  solution  in  sea-water.  Action  of  the  salt  in  the  boiler. 


COURSE    IN   MARINE    ENGINEERING BORDA.  325 

Deposit.  Measure  of  density;  salinometer ;  testing  salinoiueter.  Effect  of  de- 
posits; means  of  prevention;  blowing  off.  Losses  occasioned  by  it.  Regula- 
tion of  the  blowing  off.  Emptying  the  boilers. 

5. — Pressure;  production'of  steam. — Keeping  up  the  pressure.  Increasing  and  dimin- 
ishing pressure.  Coal  consumed,  (1)  in  terms  of  the  evaporation  per  given 
weight  of  coal ;  (2)  per  unit  area  of  grate  in  a  given  time. 

6. — Accidents. — Foaming:  causes;  effects;  remedies;  means  of  prevention.  Priming: 
causes;  effects;  remedies;  means  of  prevention.  Leaks:  their  consequences. 
Plugging  a  leaking  tube.  Dangerous  lowering  of  the  water  level  in  the  boilers ; 
measures  to  be  taken. 

7. — Cold  testing  of  boilers:  object  and  methods. 

SECOND  YEAR. 
I. 

Principal  types  of  ordinary  engines  in  use,  of  Woolf's  or  compound  engines,  and  of  boat 

engines. 

Oscillating  paddle  engine.  Compound  inverted-cylinder  engine.  Woolf's  three- 
cylinder  back-acting  engine.  Inverted-cylinder  non-condensing  launch  engine. 
Silent  launch  engines. 

II. 

Description  and  details  of  various  parts  of  the  maehiner,y. 

1. — The  cylinder  and  its  appendages. — Cylinder;  valve-seat;  ports;  bottom;  cover. 
Clearance.  Ratio  between  the  stroke  of  the  piston  and  the  diameter  of  the  cyl- 
inder. Steam-jacket;  lagging. 

Cylinders  and  steam-passages  of  Woolf  engines.  Continuous-expansion  engine. 
Compound  engines,  with  cranks  at  90°.  Three-cylinder  engines,  with  cranks  at 
90°  and  135°.  Piston-rod  stuffing-boxes  for  horizontal  and  vertical  cylinders. 
Laying  up  the  packing.  Stuffing-box  capable  of  adjustment  while  under  way. 
Cylinder  relief-valves.  Blow-through  cock.  Ordinary  balance-pressure  lubri- 
cator. Thibaut's  lubricator.  Roscoet's  lubricator. 

2. — Steam  piston,  packing,  rods. — Spider  of  piston ;  piston-rings ;  follower.  Anti-fric- 
tion piston-rings.  Piston-rods ;  fitting  of  the  rod  in  the  piston  and  in  the  cross- 
head.  Trunks;  their  adjustment  with  the  piston. 

3. — Slide-valves. — Review  of  the  classification.  Ordinary  three-ported  slide-valve. 
Object  of  equilibrium  packings.  Box-valve  on  Mazeline's  system.  Double- 
ported  slide-valve.  Dupuy  de  L&nie's  long  D- valve.  Rectangular  long  D-valve 
of  Indret.  Relative  merits  of  different  methods  of  distribution. 

4. — Starting  and  reversing  gear. — Review  of  the  classification.  Madeline's  starting 
gear.  Stephenson's  link ;  explanation  of  the  action  of  the  link. 

5. — Valves:  regulators  and  apparatus  of  variable  expansion. — Throttle-valve.  Stop- 
valve.  Throttle-valve  in  boat  engines. 

Governors:  two  classes.  Adaptability  for  marine  engines.  Conditions  that  must 
be  fulfilled  by  a  governor  used  in  a  marine  engine.  Farcot's  governor:  descrip- 
tion, conditions  of  equilibrium,  and  mode  of  action.  Servo-moleurs  :  geometric 
description  of  a  servo-moteur  applied  to  an  engine. 

Apparatus  for  variable  cut-off ;  their  use.  Review  of  the  classification.  Expan- 
sion by  means  of  gridiron-valve  aud  adjustable  eccentric.  Meyer's  expansion- 
valve.  Expansion  by  means  of  a  butterfly-valve  moved  by  a  fixed  eccentric  of 
variable  throw.  Expansion-valve  regulated  by  a  link. 

6. — The  condenser  and  its  parts. — Analysis  of  the  processes  of  condensation  by  injec- 
tion and  of  surface  condensation.  Weight  of  the  injection  water;  temperature 
of  jet  condensation.  Weight  of  cold  water  in  surface-condensers ;  temperature  ' 


NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

area  of  condensing  surface.    Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  surface  con- 
densers and  reasons  for  employing  them. 

Form  and  volume  of  jet-condensers.  Sea-cock  and  injection-pipe.  Injection- 
valve.  Bilge-injection. 

Air-pump ;  description ;  volume  for  maintaining  a  proper  vacuum  in  a  given  con- 
denser. Description  of  lifting  air-pump.  India-rubber  valves.  The  Indret 
jet-condenser  fora  screw-engine.  Double-acting  air-pump.  Hot-well;  relief- 
valve  ;  outboard-delivery  valve.  Discharge-pipe. 

Complete  description  of  a  surface-condenser  for  an  engine  of  the  Indret  type. 
Method  of  action  of  the  surface-condenser.  Circulation  of  the  steam  and  of  thg 
cold  water.  Methods  of  fixing  the  tube  in  the  tube-sheet.  Distilling-apparatus 
for  fresh  water. 

7. — Transmission  of  movement. — Madeline's  cross-head.  Cross-heads  of  the  Indret 
type. 

Connecting-rod,  type  Indret,  with  club  ends.  Mazeliue's  connecting-rod,  stub 
end.  Cross-head  guides,  cross-head,  and  connecting-rod  for  an  inverted  cylin- 
der engine. 

Mazeline's  crank-shaft  bearings.  Bearings  of  the  "Forges  et  Chantiers"  type. 
Crank-shaft ;  angle  between  the  cranks.  Valve-gear  counter-shaft. 

Siphon  lubricator.     Lubricator  with  valve.     Crank-pin  and  wrist-pin  lubricators. 
8. — Apparatus  for  feeding  and  for  pumping  out  bilge. — Feed-pumps.    Donkey  engine; 
its  valve  chamber. 

Giffard's  injector;  its  principle.     Description  of  the  Gift'ard  feeding  apparatus. 

Behrens's  rotary  engine. 

Bilge-pumps.     Jet-bilge  pump.     Friedmann's  ejector.     Centrifugal  pump. 

III. 

Propellers. 

1. — Paddle-wheels. — Geometrical  description;  mode  of  action.  Causes  of  loss  of 
power ;  slip.  Elements  of  paddle-wheels.  Position  and  number  of  wheels. 
Advance  and  slip.  Rolling  circle.  Different  systems  of  paddle-wheels ;  wheels 
with  feathering  paddles. 

2. — The  screw. — Definitions.  Mode  of  action.  Causes  of  loss  of  power;  slip.  Ele- 
ments. Position  and  number  of  screws.  Advance  and  slip.  Fixed  and  va- 
riable pitch.  Classification  and  description  of  various  screws;  type  Mangin. 
Screw  with  spherical  hub  and  bent-back  blades.  New  model  of  screw. 
Line  of  shafting.  Cardan's  coupling  and  hand-turning  gear.  Movable  coupling 
and  break.  Stern-pipe  and  screw-shaft.  Thrust-bearing.  Stern  stuffing-box. 
Outboard  bearing  of  screw-shaft. 

IV. 

Regulation,  work,  and  employment  of  marine  engines. 

1.— Curves  representing  the  motions  of  the  slide-valve. — Representation  of  the  simul- 
taneous movement  of  the  piston  and  slide-valve;  curves  of  piston-speeds. 
Motion  curve  of  a  3-ported  slide.  Variation  of  the  angle  of  lead.  Relative 
positions  of  piston  and  slide-valve.  Motion  curve  of  a  D  slide-valve.  Deter- 
mination of  the  action  of  a  slide-valve  by  means  of  the  motion  of  any  given 
point  in  the  valve. 

Determination  of  the  elements  necessary  for  a  graphic  representation  of  the 
motion  of  a  slide-valve.  Determination  of  the  dead  centers  of  the  piston  and 
slide.  Determination  of  the  lap.  Operations  necessary  for  determining  the 
relative  position  of  the  piston  and  slide-valve. 

Drawing  of  a  sketch  of  the  arrangement  and  position  of  the  ports.  Analysis  of 
the  operations  of  the  slide-valve.  Drawing  of  a  D-valve.  Adjustment  of  the 


COURSE  IN  MARINE  ENGINEERING BORDA.       327 

valve-stein  and  angle  of  eccentric  by  means  of  a  motion-diagram.  Case  of  a  link  . 
Observations  relative  to  the  valve-diagram  for  a  backing  motion. 
2. — Work  of  the  steam  in  the  engine. — Theory  of  the  indicator.  Primitive  indicator 
of  Watt.  Drawing  of  a  diagram  from  the  analysis  of  the  working  of  the  slide- 
valve.  Measurement  of  the  pressure  by  means  of  the  indicator-diagram.  The 
surface  of  the  diagram  represents  the  effective  work  of  the  steam  upon  a  square 
centimeter  of  the  surface  of  the  piston. 

Garnier's  indicator,  new  model.     Richards's  indicator. 

Fitting  the  indicator  on  an  engine.  Adjustment  of  the  indicator.  Disarrange- 
ment of  the  indicator.  Representation  of  an  indicator-curve.  Tracing  of  the 
atmospheric  line. 

Calculation  of  the  mean  effort  on  the  pistons.  Mean  vacuum  in  -the  cylinder ;  cor- 
rection by  means  of  the  barometric  pressure.  Calculation  of  the  power  of  an 
engine  by  the  mean  effort  found  by  the  indicator-curves.  Nominal,  indicated, 
and  actual  horse-power.  Work  on  the  shaft.  Old  formula  for  nominal  horse- 
power. 

Calculation  of  the  consumption  of  steam  by  the  indicator-curve ;  common  method. 

Labrousse's  method. 

3. — Regulation  and  working  of  compound  engines. — Definitions  and  classification. 
Continuous-expansion    engine.      Method   of   producing   expansion.     Effective 
admission  and  expansion.     Actual  expansion ;  indicator  curves. 
Compound  engine  with  cranks  at  90°.    Method  of  producing  expansion.     Curves 
of  volumes,  and  indicator-curves. 

Three-cylinder  compound  engine,  with  cranks  at  90°  and  135°.  Expansion  appa- 
ratus. Curves  of  volumes  and  indicator-curves.  Adj  ustment  of  the  slide-valves 
according  to  the  angle  of  the  cranks. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  Woolf  engines.  Calculation  of  the  effective 
horse-power  of  Woolf  engines  by  means  of  indicator  curves.  Actual  mean  effort ; 
fictitious  mean  effort.  Calculation  of  the  consumption  of  steam. 
4. — Efficiency  of  engines. — Analysis  of  indicator-curves  under  various  conditions. 
Reduction  of  pressure  between  the  boiler  and  the  cylinder,  and  between  the  cyl- 
inder and  the  condenser.  Contracted  passages  and  their  employment  with  wet 
steam.  Undulations  of  curves.  Leakage  past  the  slide-valve.  Leakage  past 
the  piston.  Insufficient  steam-lead.  Working  with  low  pressure  and  late  cut- 
off. Working  at  low  pressure  with  early  cut-off.  Three-ported  slide-valve, 
with  valve-stem  too  short.  Angular  advance  of  eccentric  too  great  and  valve- 
stem  two  long.  Length  of  indicator-cord  badly  adjusted. 

Determination  of  average  horse-power  and  speed  at  trials  of  engines.  Relation 
between  the  speed  of  the  ship,  the  indicated  power  of  the  pistons,  and  the  slip 
of  the  propelling  instrument.  Coefficient  of  speed.  Consumption  of  coal  per 
indicated  horse-power  per  hour.  Consumption  of  coal  per  square  meter  of  grate- 
surface  per  hour.  Efficiency  of  combustible.  Loss  of  heat  in  engines. 

V. 

Manipulation  peculiar  to  each  of  the  principal  types  of  engines  in  actual  use,  including  boat 

engines. 

1. — Maneuvers. — Preparations  for  starting.  Heating  the  engine ;  blowing  through 
and  turning  over.  Starting;  stopping;  backing.  Regulating  the  speed;  in- 
creasing and  moderating  speed. 

2. — Care  of  the  engine  while  in  use. — Cylinders,  slide-valves,  and  distribution  of  steam. 
Condensation.  Movement  of  the  machinery.  Feed-pumps  and  bilge-pumps. 

3. — Accidents  to  the  engine. — Heating  of  bearings.  Dangerous  pounding.  Leaks. 
Heating  of  the  condenser.  Filling  up  of  the  condenser.  Air-leaks.  Leaks  in 
the  condenser-tube  packing. 

4. — Management  of  boat  engines. 


328  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

VI. 

Injuries  of  engines  and  toilers. 

1. — Boiler  explosions. — Two  kinds,  by  rupture  and  by  bursting ;  causes  and  means  of 
prevention.  Escape  of  water  by  the  safety-valve.  Explosive  combinations  in 
the  flues. 

2. — Spontaneous  combustion  of  coal.  Causes.  Indications  of  the  heating  of  coal; 
precautions  to  be  taken.  Fire  in  the  coal-bunkers. 

3. — Injuries  to  the  cylinder ;  measures  to  be  taken  for  working  the  engine  with  the- 
parts  left  intact ;  engine  with  simple  cut-off,  Multiple-cylinder  continuous-ex- 
pansion engine.  Woolf  engine,  with  cranks  at  90°.  Three-cylinder  engine,, 
with  cranks  at  90°  and  135°. 


NOTE    M. 

BILL  OF  FARE. 

Menu  desrepas  des  Sieves  pour  lajourne'e  du  18juin  1878  et  pour  le  lendemain  matin*. 

DlNER. 

Potage  au  vermicelli. 

Bosuf  aux  choux. 

Petits  pois  au  beurre. 

Fraises. 

SOUPER. 

Mouton  r6ti. 

Pommes  de  terre  (maltre  d'hdtel). 
Compote  de  prunes. 

DEJEUNER. 

Cafe"  au  lait. 
Beurre. 


NOTE  N. 

PROGRAMME  OF  EXAMINATIONS. 

SCHOOL  OF  MACHINISTS,  FRENCH  NAVY. 

CANDIDATES  FOR  FIRST  MASTERS. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  plane  trigonometry. 


Square  and  square  root  of  whole  numbers. 
Square  and  square  root  of  fractions. 
Cube  of  whole  numbers  and  fractions. 
System  of  weights  and  measures. 


COURSE    OF    STUDY,    FRENCH   MACHINISTS'   SCHOOL.         329 

Relation  between  the  metric  system  and  the  English  system  of  weights  and  measures* 

Ratio  and  proportion. 

Arithmetical  and  geometrical  progression. 

Theory  of  logarithms.     Use  of  tables. 

Elementary  processes  of  algebra. 

Solution  of  equations  of  the  first  degree  with  one  or  more  unknown  quantities. 

Solution  of  equations  of  the  second  degree  with  one  unknown  quantity. 

Properties  of  right  lines  and  of  angles. 

Equality  of  triangles. 

Properties  of  parallel  lines,  rectangles,  and  polygons;   of  the  circle;  properties  of 

chords,  secants,  and  tangents. 

Measurement  of  angles.     Relative  position  of  two  circumferences. 
Proportional  lines.     Similar  polygons. 
Problems  of  plane  geometry. 
Regular  polygons.     Measurement  of  plane  surfaces ;  of  the  circumference  and  of  the 

area  of  a  circle. 

Parallel  and  perpendicular  planes  and  right  lines.     Dihedral  angles. 
Properties  of  prisms  and  pyramids.     Superficial  area  and  volume.    Volume  of  the 

frustum  of  a  prism,  parallelepiped,  and  pyramid.     Superficial  area  and  volume  of 

a  cylinder,  of  a  cone,  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  and  of  a  sphere. 
Solid  contents  of  a  coal-bunker. 
Definitions  of  the  principal  trigonometric  lines. 
Solution  of  right  triangles. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Mechanics  and  physics. 

Elementary  notions  of  matter ;  inertia,  motion,  velocity. 

Forces;  weight  and  density  of  bodies.  Measurement  of  force.  Mass  and  its  deter- 
mination. 

Composition  of  concurrent  forces.  Decomposition  of  a  force  into  two  others  acting  in 
any  given  direction.  Composition  of  parallel  forces. 

Centers  of  gravity.  Practical  determination  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  any  body 
whatever.  Determination  of  the  centers  of  gravity  of  geometrical  surfaces  and  the 
principal  solids. 

Work  of  forces;  its  graphical  representation  and  measure.  The  kilogrammeter  and 
the  horse-power. 

Principle  of  the  transmission  of  work  in  the  case  of  a  uniform  motion :  Application  to 
the  equilibrium  of  simple  mechanics.  Passive  resistances.  Necessity  of  regulating 
the  motion  of  machines.  Fly-wheels.  '  The  efficiency  of  a  machine. 

Action  and  equilibrium  of  the  lever ;  of  pulleys.  The  differential  pulley.  Action  of 
the  connecting-rod,  of  the  crank,  of  the  eccentric,  and  of  cams.  Action,  equilib- 
rium, and  drawing  of  parallel  and  conical  toothed  wheels.  Action  and  equilibrium 
of  the  screw ;  of  the  endless  screw.  Watt's  parallelogram.  Equilibrium  of  the 
inclined  plane  and  of  the  wedge,  taking  into  account  the  effect  of  friction ;  of  the 
winch,  and  of  the  windlass  or  capstan.  The  differential  windlass. 

Strength  of  materials. 

Equality  of  pressure  of  fluids.  Calculation  of  the  pressure  exerted  upon  a  given  sur- 
face. 

Air,  atmospheric  pressure.  Different  methods  of  determining  pressure  in  engines. 
Vacuum,  and  methods  of  determining  it.  Construction  and  use  of  the  barometer. 

Effects  produced  upon  bodies  by  the  increase  or  diminution  of  heat.  Construction- 
and  use  of  the  thermometer.  Expansion  and  contraction  of  metals.  Precautions 
to  be  taken  in  consequence  of  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  metals  in  the  con- 
struction, erection,  repair,  and  management  of  engines.  Shrinkage,  tempering,  an- 
nealing. Expansion  of  fluids.  Particular  effects  of  the  action  of  heat  on  water. 


330  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

Measurement  of  heat.  Calorific  capacity  or  specific  heat  of  bodies,  latent  heat. 
Propagation  of  heat.  Effects  of  surfaces  of  various  colors  and  of  polished  surfaces. 
Good  and  bad  conductors.  Heating  of  liquids  by  circulation.  Means  of  preventing 
loss  of  heat,  and  the  overheating  of  furnace  doors  and  chimneys.  Principle  of 
transformation  of  heat  into  work,  and  vice  versa.  Mechanical  equivalent  of  heat. 
Caruot's  theorem. 

Fundamental  principles  of  boilers,  combustion,  furnaces. 

Gases:  expansion,  tension.     Mariotte's  and  Gay-Lussac's  laws. 

Theory  of  the  siphon. 

Theory  and  description  of  the  suction-pump ;  of  the  force-pump,  and  the  doable-acting 
pump  ;  of  centrifugal  and  rotary  pumps. 

Hydraulic  press. 

Evaporation,  vaporization,  boiling,  conversion  into  steam.  General  properties  of 
steam.  Saturated  steam,  heated  and  superheated  steam.  Spheroidal  condition 
of  water.  Bourdon's  manometer.  Compressed-air  manometers. 

Condensation  of  steam.  Problems  relating  to  jet  and  surface  condensers.  Principle 
of  the  condenser.  Action  of  single  and  double  acting  air  pumps.  Hot-well.  Meas- 
urement of  condensation  ;  vacuum  gauge.  Different  forms  of  condenser-barometers. 

CHAPTER  III. 
Theory  and  description  of  engines. 

Fixed  and  variable  cut-offs;  their  use,  advantages,  and  inconveniences. 

Theory  and  action  of  compound  engines. 

Theory  of  slide-valves ;  lap  ;  angles  of  lap  and  lead  ;  relations  between  the  movement 
of  the  slide-valve  and  that  of  piston  ;  steam  and  exhaust  lead;  fixed  cut-off ;  com- 
pression. Theory  of  variable  cut-ott's.  Reversement  of  motion ;  different  methods 
of  producing  it. 

Classification  of  marine  engines,  according  to  the  method  of  using  the  steam,  the 
mode  of  transmission  of  movement  of  piston  to  shaft,  and  according  to  the  kind  of 
propeller.  Advantages  aud  disadvantages  of  the  different  kinds  of  engines. 

Necessity  of  a  number  of  cylinders ;  equalization  of  movement. 

Description  and  working  of  an  oscillating  engine  ;  of  a  back-acting  engine,  ordinary 
and  compound  ;  of  a  trunk-engine.  Brotherhood's  engine.  Principal  types  of  hoist- 
ing machines. 

Properties  and  use  of  metals  aud  other  substances  employed  in  the  construction  of  en- 
gines. 

Description  of  slide»valves ;  locomotive  and  double-ported  slide-valves  ;  box- valves  ; 
D  and  piston  valves,  long  and  short.  Fitting  slide-valves  in  oscillating  engines. 

Principal  starting-gear  ;  Stephenson's  link  ;  system  of  Creusot ;  systems  of  Mazeline 
and  of  Dupuy  de  Lome ;  systems  of  oscillating  engines. 

Description  of  the  principal  systems  of  variable  cut-off. 

Principal  systems  of  throttle-valves  of  marine  engines. 

Action  and  description  of  the  different  kinds  of  surface-condenser  and  of  distilling 
apparatus. 

Bed-frame,  foundation-plates,  framing  and  flooring  of  engines.     Lubricators. 

The  screw  and  its  elements.  Advance  and  slip.  Different  types  of  screws.  Various 
arrangements  for  carrying  the  screw  and  screw-shaft.  Fitting  the  screw  upon  the 
shaft.  Description  of  a  line  of  shafting.  Stern  stuffing-box  and  thrust-bearing. 
Paddle-wheels  and  their  parts;  different  systems.  Advance  and  slip. 

Classification  of  marine  boilers  in  relation  to  their  pressure,  their  interior  arrange- 
ment, and  their  shape.  Complete  descriptiou-of  a  rectangular  tubular  boiler.  De- 
scription of  a  cylindical  tubular  boiler  of  the  authorized  pattern.  Detailed  descrip- 
tion of  a  Belleville  generator.  Complete  system  of  pipes  of  a  system  of  boilers. 

Plates  used  in  the  construction  of  boilers  ;  their  assemblage.     Furnaces,  ash-pits,  fire- 


COURSE    OF    STUDY,    FRENCH    MACHINISTS'    SCHOOL.          331 

bars,  bridge  walls,  combustion-chambers,  and  smoke-boxes.  Metal  fortubes.  Fix- 
ing of  stationary  or  movable  tubes  in  the  tube-plate.  Bracing,  diagonal  stays; 
their  necessity  ;  their  disposition.  Bridge-bracing. 

Different  systems  of  chimneys  and  their  jackets.  Steam  communication  ;  stop-valves- 
Dryers  and  superheaters.  Safety-valves,  and  their  working  and  weights.  Escape- 
pipes;  water-gauges,  gauge-cocks;  man-holes,  mud-holes,  and  other  accessories  of 
boilers.  Cocks.  Pipes  in  general.  Testing  of  marine  boilers.  Feeding  of  boilers ; 
feed  pumps  and  valves.  Bilge-pumps,  principal  types.  Giffard's  injector.  Eject- 
ors. Auxiliary  feeding-engines  or  donkey-engines.  Behrens's  system. 

Principle  of  aervo-moteurs :  various  types. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Management  of  engines. 

Properties  of  combustibles.     Quantity  of  combustible  necessary  to  evaporate  a  certain 

weight  of  water.     Combustibles  used  in  the  navy.     Wood  and  different  kinds  of  coal. 

Occasions  for  wetting  the  coal.     Arrangement  of  fuel  on  the  fire-grate.     Thickness 

of  the  layer. 
Lighting.     Treatment  of  fires  while  under  way.     Manner  of  stoking.     Forcing  and 

easing  the  fires.     Banking  fires.     Arrangements  for  heating  with  wood.     Care  to  be 

given  to  chimneys  and  their  stays.     Fire  in  the  chimney. 
Cleaning  furnaces   and  grate-bars.      Removing  ashes  and  clinkers.     Sweeping  the 

tubes  while  under  way.     Hauling  fires.     Preventing  the  entry  of  cold  air. 
Filling  up  the  boilers.     Keeping  up  a  constant  water  level.     Precautions  to  be  taken 

relative  to  feeding,  while  in  motion  ;  before  and  during  a  stoppage.     Details  of 

Belleville's  generator.     Dangerous  lowering  of  the  level  of  water  in  the  boilers,  and 

the  measures  to  be  taken. 

Salts  in  solution  in  sea- water.     Concentration  and  saturation.     Saliuometer ;  its  con- 
struction and  graduation. 
Saline  deposits  in  boilers;  means  of  prevention.     Blowing  out  the  boiler;  precautions. 

Continuous  blowing  off.     Estimating  the  quantity  to  be  blown  off.     Heat  lost  by 

blowing  off". 
Fatty  deposits  in  the  boilers.     Apparatus  for  the  removal  of  fatty  substances  from 

feed-water.     Saponificatiou  of  fats. 
Various  causes  of  the  augmentation  and  diminution  of  pressure  in  boilers.     Keeping 

up,  increasing,  and  reducing  the  pressure.     Depression  below  atmospheric  pressure. 
Disuse  of  a  boiler  at  sea.     Precautions  to  prevent  its  collapsing.     Starting  fires  in  a 

fresh  boiler.     Case  when  the  two  preceding  operations  are  done  simultaneously. 

Care  to  be  given  to  boilers  after  the  fires  are  out.     Manner  of  emptying  them . 

Modification  of  the  number  of  boilers  used  in  passing  from  one  speed  to  another. 
Causes  of  foaming  and  of  priming.     Means  of  prevention. 
Leaks  in  the  boiler  and  piping.     Consequence  of  leaks  in  connection  with  feeding 

and  blowing  out. 
Blowing  through  and  turning  over.     Starting :  precautions  to  be  takeu.     Different 

cases  where  the  engine  does  not  work. 
Accelerating  or  slackening  speed;  case  where  the  partial  closing  of  the  steam-valve  is 

preferable  to  varying  the  cut-off.     Stopping.     Reversing. 
Adjustment  of  moving  parts ;  lubrication.     Various   noises.     Thumping.     Heating. 

Binding. 

Leaks  in  the  engine;  means  of  discovery  and  remedy. 
Choking  up  of  condensers  and  obstructions  to  injection  water.     Particular  care  in 

the  management  of  surface  condensers. 
General  precautions  to  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  apparatus  while  in  motion,  before  and 

after  arrival,  before,  during,  and  after  engagement.     Distribution  of  the  personnel 

for  getting  under  way,  mooring,  while  under  way,  and  during  action. 
Method  of  utilizing  the  machinery  in  case  of  fire  or  springing  a  leak. 


332  NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Care  and  repair  of  engines. 

Care  to  be  taken  for  the  maintenance  and  preservation  of  boilers  and  tubing;  removal 
of  saline  deposits ;  different  processes  in  use. 

Preservation  of  the  machinery  and  propeller  during  long  periods  of  disuse. 

Description  and  use  of  the  diving  apparatus. 

Measures  to  be  taken  in  case  of  an  accident  to  the  engine  or  boilers.  Approximate 
calculation  of  the  number  of  cubic  meters  of  steam,  at  atmospheric  pressure,  that 
can  escape  from  a  given  boiler  in  case  of  explosion  or  rupture.  Injury  to  cylinders, 
their  heads,  and  stuffing-boxes.  Provision  for  continuing  work  when  a  cylinder  is 
disabled,  particularly  in  compound  engines.  Injuries  to  the  steam-piston  and 
piston-rod ;  to  valves ;  to  valve-motion  and  eccentrics ;  to  pipes  and  steam- valves ; 
to  the  condensers  and  injection  apparatus,  particularly  in  surface  condensers; 
to  air  pumps,  their  bonnets,  piston-rods,  valves  and  guards;  to  the  hot- well  and  dis- 
charge pipes ;  to  the  cross-heads  and  keys,  connecting-rods,  link-work,  and  gearing  ; 
to  the  shaft,  propeller,  and  cranks ;  to  the  foundation  plates  and  framing,  their 
straining  in  heavy  weather;  injuries  to  bearings,  their  caps  and  brasses;  to  the 
screw,  the  bearings,  and  the  stern  stuffing-box ;  to  the  paddle-wheels  and  their 
floats ;  to  the  boilers — burnings,  cracks,  collapsing.  Replacing  of  a  rivet,  a  stay- 
bolt,  or  a  plate.  Bursting  of  tubes ;  plugging  or  replacing  them.  Broken  gauge- 
glasses.  Damaged  pressure-gauges.  Accidents  in  the  smoke-stacks.  Accidents 
peculiar  to  the  Belleville  generator. 

Accidents  to  the  pipes,  cocks,  and  valves  of  the  boiler ;  to  the  blowing-out  and  feeding 
apparatus ;  to  the  bilge  and  donkey  pumps.  Rupture  and  explosion  of  boilers ;  their 
immediate  causes ;  precautions  to  betaken.  Inflammable  mixtures  in  the  flues  and 
coal-bunkers.  Spontaneous  combustion  of  coal  in  the  bunkers ;  measures  to  be 
taken. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Erection  of  engines. 

Putting  in  place  all  the  stationary  parts  of  a  screw-engine  Avith  direct-acting  connect- 
ing-rod, a  back-acting  engine,  or  a  trunk  engine  (at  the  option  of  the  candidate), 
and  fixing  the  engine  in  the  ship.  Putting  in  place  all  the  movable  parts  of  one  of 
the  above  engines ;  complete  verification  of  the  erection  of  one  of  the  above  engines, 
and  specially  of  the  line  of  shafting.  Putting  in  place  the  fixed  parts  of  an  oscil- 
lating engine,  and  the  fixing  of  this  engine  in  the  ship.  Putting  in  place  all  the 
movable  parts  of  an  oscillating  engine.  Complete  verification  of  the  erection  of  this 
engine.  Lining  up  the  intermediate  and  paddle  shafts.  Lining  tip  crank  and  pro- 
peller. 

Putting  the  boilers  on  board.  Their  erection  upon  the  keelsons,  with  or  without  floor- 
ing. Serro-moteurs. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Regulation  of  the  work  of  engines. 

Regulation  in  general  of  the  valves  and  variable  expansion  gear;  relative  adjustment 
of  the  valves  of  a  compound  engine.  Rectification  of  the  point  of  attachment  of  the 
valve-stem  and  of  the  variable  cut-off;  also  that  of  the  position  of  the  eccentrics. 

Theory  of  distribution  and  expansion  valve  diagrams.  Showing  by  means  of  curves 
the  motion  of  the  slide-valve.  Use  of  this  diagram.  Erection  and  verification  of 
distribution  and  expansion  valves  by  means  of  the  regulation  diagrams. 

Description  and  use  of  the  indicator.  Indicator  connections  of  the  different  types  of 
engines.  Atmospheric  line ;  precautions  to  take  to  trace  it.  Tracing  and  analysis 


COURSE    OF    STUDY,    FRENCH    MACHINISTS'    SCHOOL.         333 

of  an  indicator  diagram  in  an  ordinary  or  a  compound  engine.  Calculation  of  the 
work  upon  the  piston  by  means  of  the  indicator  diagram;  mean  effort  determined 
by  tbis  measurement ;  case  of  an  ordinary  or  a  compound  engine.  Determination  of 
the  effective  force  on  the  shaft.  Determination  of  the  nominal  force  of  ordinary  and 
compound  engines  at  high  and  at  low  pressure.  Value  of  nominal  horse-power  in 
kilogrammeters.  Calculation  of  the  expenditure  of  steam.  Determination  by  the 
indicator  diagram  of  the  necessary  elements  for  this  calculation.  Comparison  be- 
tween the  pressures  as  shown  by  the  indicator  and  the  real  pressures  of  the  boiler 
and  condenser.  Comparison  between  the  pressures  shown  by  the  indicator  in  the 
small  and  large  cylinders  of  a  compound  engine  during  their  communication.  Forms 
of  indicator  diagram  in  the  case  of  running  with  variable  cut-off,  with  an  almost 
complete  closing  of  the  throttle,  in  case  of  high -pressure  engine,  of  leaks,  of  priming, 
of  bad  arrangements  of  the  indicator,  &c.  Comparative  forms  of  indicator  diagrams, 
of  small  and  large  cylinders  in  compound  engines. 

Approximate  measurement  of  the  work  of  air-pumps.  Calculation  of  the  thrust  of  the 
propelling  instrument  when  the  work  upon  the  piston  and  the  speed  of  the  vessel 
are  known. 


334 


NAVAL    EDUCATION APPENDIX. 


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